107 History of Buddhist Education Cover 20250904 VN

History of Buddhist Education in Sri Lanka: Revival of the Bhikkhuni Sangha

Dr. Ven. Bhikṣuṇī T.N. Gioi Huong

Bảo Anh Lạc Bookshelf 107

Dr. Ven. Bhikṣuṇī T.N. Gioi Huong

Hong Duc Publishing

Huong Sen Buddhist Temple

19865 Seaton Avenue, Perris, CA 92570, USA Tel: (951) 657-7272, Cell: (951) 616-8620

Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. https://www.facebook.com/Huong.Sen.Riverside/ Web: www.huongsentemple.com

Foreword: Dr. Ven. Dr. K. Siri Sumedha Thero 9

Introduction: Dr. Bhikkhuni T.N. Giới Hương 13

Chapter 1:

Introduction to Sri Lankan Buddhism 21

1.1 Buddhism, Society, and Culture in Sri Lanka 21

1.2. Overview of the Chapter Objectives 22

Chapter 2:

Historical Overview of Monastic Education

in Sri Lanka 30

Early Origins of Buddhist Education

in Sri Lanka 30

Development Through Ancient, Medieval,

and Colonial Periods 31

Role of Significant Historical Figures

and Events 34

Chapter 3:

Leading Universities and institutes

for Buddhist Studies 37

Buddhist and Pali University - Homagama 37
Sri Lanka Bhikshu University, Anuradhapura 39
Nagananda International Institute for

Buddhist Studies 41

Sri Lanka International Buddhist Academy

(Siba Campus) 46

Postgraduate Institute of Pali

and Buddhist Studies 49

Detailed Contact Information for All Post- Graduation Institutes of Sri Lankan

Universities Offering Buddhist Studies 51

Chapter 4:

Buddhist Forest Monasteries

and Meditation Centers in Sri Lanka 53

Na Uyana Aranya 54
Nissarana Vanaya 57
Kanduboda Siyane Vipassana

Meditation Centre 60

Kudumbigala Monastery:

A Sanctuary of Serenity and Spiritual Practice 64

Chapter 5:

The Restoration of the Bhikkhuni Sangha 71

Historical Overview 71
Education Programs and Curriculums

in Prominent Bhikkhuni Education Centers

in Sri Lanka 76

Prominent Bhikkhuni Piriven (Sila Mata)

in Sri Lanka 77

Temples of Dasa Sila Matha 82
Bhikkhuni Training Centers 85

Chapter 6:

Contributions of Bhikkhunis to the Buddhist

Community and Society 126

Venerable Bhikkhuni Kusuma 127
Venerable bhikkhuni Dhammananda 131
Venerable Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda 132
Venerable Bhikkhuni Hapandeniya Supeshala Maha Theri 134
Venerable Bhikkhuni Peliyagoda Sudarshana 135

Chapter 7:

Conclusion 139

Early Development (Third Century BCE) 139
Golden Age and Institutional Growth

(Third Century BCE-Eleventh Century CE) 140

Decline of the Bhikkhuni Sangha

(Eleventh Century CE) 141

Revival and Challenges

(Twelfth Century-Nineteenth Century) 141

Modern Revival of the Bhikkhuni Sangha / (Twentieth Century-Present) 142
Contemporary Development

(Twenty-first Century, March 19, 2025) 143

Appendix 146

The Origin of the Community 146
The influence of Buddhism

on Sri Lanka’s Culture 163

The Revival of the Bhikkhuni Sangha

in Sri Lanka 173

Special Report: Landmark Supreme Court Ruling Affirms Equal Rights for Buddhist

Bhikkhunis in Sri Lanka 180

References 187

Bao Anh Lac Bookshelf 194

***

Foreword

Ven. Dr. K. Siri Sumedha Thero

Namo Tassa Bhagavato Arahato Sammāsambuddhassa

t is with profound gratitude that I write these few words for this booklet titled History of Buddhist Education in Sri Lanka: Revival of the Bhikkhuni Sangha. This work is a significant contribution to the field of Buddhist studies, and I would like to express my deep appreciation to Venerable Dr. Bhikṣuṇī T.N. Giới Hương, President, Huong Sen Buddhist Temple, California, USA, for her unwavering commitment to preserving and promoting the rich heritage of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Her dedication is reflected not only in this publication but also in her numerous other works in Bao Anh Lac Bookshelf (Huong Sen Buddhist Temple) and her active participation in the academic and spiritual life of Sri Lankan Buddhism.

Dr.BhikkhuniT.N.GiớiHươnghasfrequentlyvisitedSri Lanka, India, and other Buddhist countries, demonstrating her enthusiasm for the Theravada Buddhist tradition and the culture which is based on Buddhist teachings. She has made significant contributions by organizing academic Buddhist conferences in 2023 at prestigious institutions such as the Universities of Sharda, Uttar Pradesh and Siddharth United Social Welfare Mission, Chinar Park, Kolkata (India), Peradeniya (Kandy), and Colombo (Sri Lanka). Through these initiatives, she has effectively committed herself to promoting Sri Lankan and Indian Buddhism, both within the country and on a global scale.

Sri Lanka, often referred to as the “Pearl of the Indian Ocean,” boasts a long and rich history of Buddhist education that dates back to the third century BCE. This booklet thoroughly details the development of Buddhist education in Sri Lanka, beginning with the early monastic schools known as ‘Pirivena’ and extending through the ancient, medieval, and colonial eras. Buddhist education has played a crucial role in shaping the cultural and spiritual identity of the nation, ensuring the transmission of knowledge and ethical values across generations.

This booklet delves deeply into the most prominent universities and institutes of Buddhist studies in Sri Lanka, such as the Buddhist and Pali University in Homagama and the Sri Lanka Bhikshu University in Anuradhapura. These institutions have been leaders in Buddhist scholarship, fostering generations of monks, nuns, and laypeople in their pursuit of spiritual and academic excellence. The booklet’s comprehensive descriptions of forest monasteries, meditation centers, and bhikkhuni education centers emphasize the ongoing vitality and relevance of Sri Lankan Sangha (Monks and Nuns).

The history of the revival of the Bhikkhuni Sangha in Sri Lanka, as mentioned in this booklet, is particularly noteworthy. The establishment of bhikkhuni education centers and their substantial contributions to both local and international Buddhist communities demonstrate the resilience and adaptability of Buddhist education in Sri Lanka. The stories of pioneering bhikkhunis, such as Venerable Bhikkhuni Kusuma and Venerable Bhikkhuni Peliyagoda Sudarshana…, powerfully illustrate the enduring spirit of Buddhist Nuns and its ability to inspire and empower.

I believe this booklet will be a highly valuable resource for anyone interested in the history and current state of Buddhist education in Sri Lanka. It not only provides a wealth of information but also offers insights into the lasting impact of Buddhist teachings on the cultural and spiritual lif e of the Ceylon island nation. I wholeheartedly recommend this work to scholars, practitioners, and all those who seek to deepen their understanding of Buddhism in Sri Lanka.

May this publication inspire many to explore and appreciate the profound heritage of Buddhist education in Sri Lanka, and may it contribute to the continued flourishing of the Dhamma nationally and internationally in every school of Buddhism.

Sarnath, India, May 21, 2025

Ven. Dr. Kalawatte Siri Sumedha Thero

President Indo-Sri Lanka International Buddhist Association

High Priest of Jambudvīpa-Sri Lanka Buddhist Temple Sarnath-Varanasi, India

On July 15, 2023, Ven. Dr. Siri Sumedha (center) led the Huong Sen Nuns on a pilgrimage to the Aloka Vihara, Aluviharaya, Matale, where the Pali Tripitaka

was written on leaves in 29 AD.

Introduction

Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong

uddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka around 249 BC through trade between the two neighboring countries and the spread of Buddhism by the kingdom of

Ashoka, India.

Today, with 2274 years of Buddhist history (2025 years + 249 years BC), Sri Lanka has become a Buddhist country with Theravada tradition, with many of the world’s Buddhist heritages recognized by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites,¹ and especially in the twenty-first century, there are many Buddhist universities, meditation schools, training academies for talented and virtuous monks, nuns and lay people, attracting many people from all over the world to study.

Sri Lanka is a Buddhist country with 70 percent of the population being Buddhists, with about 15,000 monks and

Phật Giáo và Thánh Tích Sri Lanka - Thích Nữ Giới Hương https://huongsentemple.com/index.php/vn/kinh-sach/tu-sach-bao-anh- lac/8707-sri-lanka

nuns living in about 6,000 monasteries across the island.² Monastics act as spiritual teachers who are very close to the Buddhist masses. They use the Dharma, precepts and meditation to guide Buddhists to live virtuously, calmly and strongly to overcome difficult challenges in life, without falling or losing morality.

In daily life, the bhikkhus (monks) live a monastic life, practicing discipline, chanting sutras and leading the community, while the bhikkhunis and dasa sil matas also practice meditation, observe precepts, teach sutras and vinaya, and act as advisors, so on. Both groups of Sangha strive to maintain Sri Lanka’s rich Buddhist heritage although the monks are more developed than the nuns.

Historically, Bhikkhuni Buddhism actually flourished in Sri Lanka from the third century BC until its decline around the eleventh century AD, interrupted by war and turmoil. In the centuries that followed, nuns accepted the monastic robes and only kept the Dasa Sil Matas precepts, instead of receiving the full Bhikkhuni ordination of 358 precepts like the Northern Buddhist nuns in countries and region such as Taiwan, Vietnam, Japan, China, etc.

Since 1996, the bhikkhuni ordination phenomenon has been revived and promoted by the ordination ceremonies in Sarnath, India, with the support of East Asian Mahayana nuns and later supported by some Sri Lankan monks. today, there are more than 200 fully ordained bhikkhunis and many novice nuns (Samaneris) who have contributed to this renewal. Feminist organizations such as the Sakyadhita International Association of Buddhist

R. Perera Buddhism in Sri Lanka. A Short History. https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/perera/wheel100.html

Women³ have played an important role in advocating for the inclusion of women in the Sangha. Thus, the reinstatement of bhikkhuni ordination in Sri Lanka is a complex, challenging process, moving in the direction of modernization and integration with ancient Buddhist traditions.

Nearly all monks and nuns receive training and education equally in monasteries, educational centers, institutes, and universities. Sri Lanka hosts numerous institutions dedicated to Buddhist studies, rooted in its Theravada tradition. These centers cater to both monastic and lay learners, providing instruction in Buddhist philosophy, Pali, Sanskrit, and related fields, frequently integrated with secular subjects to meet contemporary needs.

Central to the development of Sri Lankan Buddhism is the transformative role of monastic education. Institutions or educational centers embody a seamless integration of timeless wisdom and contemporary scholarship, equipping the Sangha to confront modern issues while safeguarding eternal truths. Equally significant is the modern Bhikkhuni Sangha’s commitment to community service and social outreach. Through diverse programs and educational efforts, Bhikkhunis exemplify the practical embodiment of Buddhist teachings, fostering closer ties between monastic and lay communities.

Yet challenges remain, including questions of gender equality within the Sangha and the task of keeping monasticism meaningful in a fast-changing world. Tackling these issues demands creative solutions grounded in the

Sakyadhita international Association of Buddhist Women. https://sakyadhita.org/

core tenets of Buddhism. Looking ahead, the Bhikkhuni Sangha in Sri Lanka must engage with an increasingly interconnected global Buddhist community. By adopting new technologies and broadening educational horizons, they can ensure the Dhamma’s ongoing relevance and influence.

This book History of Buddhist Education in Sri Lanka: Revival of the Bhikkhuni Sangha.⁴ was composed with many color illustrations, for the purpose of introducing the development of the Sangha and the Buddhist educational institutions, monasteries, universites and pirivenas in Sri Lanka in this twenty-first century, with a particular focus on the revival of the Bhikkhuni Sangha. This work stands as a tribute to the vibrant fabric of the Theravada tradition today, weaving together the wisdom of the past with the challenges of the present at the inspirational wing as well as providing contributions to the continued growth and evolution of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and beyond.

This book provides an in-depth exploration of the evolving roles of Bhikkhusand Bhikkhunisincontemporary Sri Lanka. It sheds light on the Sangha’s journey through historical obstacles, cultural transformations, and modern adaptations. The work emphasizes the pivotal role of monastic education, the growing involvement of the

The English book of History of the Present Buddhist Education and institutions of Bhikkhu, Bhikkhuni and Sīla Mātā in Sri Lanka is the number 107 in Bao Anh Lac Bookshelf while the Vietnamese version Lịch sử Giáo dục Phật giáo và các Học viện hiện tại của Tỳ-kheo, Tỳ-kheo-ni và Sīla Mātā tại Sri Lanka is number 108 in Bao Anh Lac

Please visit: https://huongsentemple.com/index.php/vn/kinh-sach/tu- sach-bao-anh-lac

Bhikkhuni Sangha in community service, and ongoing initiatives to promote gender equity within Buddhist institutions.

Serving as an essential resource for both monastic and lay readers, the book delves into the dynamic relationship between timeless wisdom and present-day challenges. By showcasing the Sangha’s resilience and flexibility, it offers practical insights for preserving Buddhism’s significance in a rapidly evolving world.

Beyond enriching the academic study of Sri Lankan Buddhism, this book inspires readers to reflect on the wider impact of spiritual practice on society. It invites thoughtful engagement with Buddhist principles (precept- meditation-wisdom) and their relevance to addressing contemporary issues.

We are profoundly grateful to the Venerable Monks and Nuns, as well as to Buddhists from all around the world, for their invaluable contributions to the existence and dissemination of this book far and wide. Below is a list of those we wish to honor:

Venerable Dr. K Siri Sumedha Thero, Venerable Kkandalame Piyasiri Thero, Venerable Nikapitiye Nandarathana Thero (PhD Scholar, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India), and the staff of Jambudvipa Sri Lanka Buddhist Temple, Sarnath, Varanasi, India – for their invaluable informationand introduction
Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda, President of Sakyadhita Training and Meditation Centre, located south of Colombo – for her leadership and guidance on the pilgrimage to the Nunneries and

meeting to the Elder Bhikkhunis in Colombo.

Bhikkhuni Tịnh Châu, also known by her Ceylon name, Suratanā, the Ph.D. researcher in Kelaniya University, Sri Lanka – for her meaningful participation in the Nunnery
Bhikkhuni Peliyagoda Sudharshana, President of Samadhi Buddhist Meditation Center, Florida, USA – for her dedicated efforts in add more
Venerable Vietnamese Nuns and devotees from the USA, Canada, and Vietnam who participated in pilgrimage tours to Sri Lanka in 2016 and 2023

– for their companionship, present and devotion in this book.

Anura Laksman, Managing Director of Anu Luck tours, Ambalangoda, and the tourism Association – for his organizational support.
Pamela Kirby, English editor – for her skillful
Vu Dinh Trong, the designer – for his creative design work.
Donors who generously contributed their expertise to make this book possible.
Various online resources, including internet sites, Google, Wikipedia, websites, blogs, and many others – for providing a wealth of information and
Buddhist professors, editors, writers, journalists, pilgrims, and all others, both known and unknown,

who provided valuable information and images for this book – for their diverse and vital contributions.

Huong Sen Temple, for their assistance in making this work available to the public – for helping bring this book to a wider

The list of the supporters is very long. We sincerely thank the many Venerable Monks, Nuns, Buddhists, organizations, and associations who supported and guided us in publishing “History of Buddhist Education in Sri Lanka: Revival of the Bhikkhuni Sangha.” Their efforts and kindness made this achievement possible, and we are deeply grateful.

We are thrilled to share the Dharma with readers worldwide and warmly invite your corrections and comments for future editions. Your input is greatly appreciated.

May this work foster a deeper appreciation of Buddhism’s role in Sri Lanka and beyond, inspiring continued growth, understanding, and positive change within the global Buddhist community.

Huong Sen Buddhist Temple Summer Sunshine 2025 Bow three times and smile Bhikṣuṇī T.N. Gioi Huong

Venerable T.N. Gioi Huong (center) and nuns from Huong Sen Pagoda made a pilgrimage to Ruvanwali Maha Chethiya Stupa, Anuradhapura, July 12, 2023

****

Introduction

to Sri Lankan Buddhism

1.1 Buddhism, Society, and Culture in Sri Lanka

uddhist education has been playing a significant role in the development of Sri Lankan society

and culture, influencing its values, traditions, and national identity (Saram, 1977; De Silva 2019). With the propagation of Buddhism in the third century BCE, Sri Lankan Buddhist education initially originated in monastic schools known as “Pirivena.” The Pirivena is not only a school for studying Buddhism, but also was the centered education institute where people studied philosophy, ethics, values, and behavior based on Buddhist teachings (“Monasticism in Sri Lanka,” n.d; Keerthirathne, 2020).

In addition to its spiritual implications, Buddhist education has a profound impact on the social fabric of the nation. The organization has been important in protecting

and promoting the Sinhala language and traditions, particular through periods of British rule when efforts were made to replace indigenous customs with foreign influences (Kemper 1984). Through protecting a wealth of knowledge in numerous fields, monastic institutions ensured the transmission of regional literature, the arts and sciences throughout generations. Politically, Buddhist education promoted stability and peace. It encouraged ethical leadership and harmonious relations, which were respected by both kings and ordinary citizens. Monks and philosophers educated in these schools often served as advisors to kings, making decisions that changed the direction of the nation’s history.

In the contemporary era, Buddhist education in Sri Lanka has progressed to incorporate current disciplines including science and technology, supporting evolving needs of society while presently maintaining traditional values. This modern adaptation prepares the students to deal with contemporary issues while staying rooted in their cultural heritage (Gamage, 2016).

The significance of Buddhist education in shaping the unique identity of Sri Lanka cannot be underestimated. It continues to exert influence in the political, social, and personal areas particularly among the Sinhalese majority, which promotes a feeling of national pride and unity. Buddhism continues to be an integral part of Sri Lankan society, serving to protect its heritage and impact its path.

1.2. Overview of the Chapter Objectives

This part aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the evolution and current nature of the Buddhist education, particularly for bhikkhus and bhikkhunis in Sri Lanka, emphasizing its historical roots and the role it plays in the contemporary educational and social contexts.

Chapter 1: Introduction to Sri Lankan Buddhism

Historical Background: This chapter explores the arrival and establishment of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, beginning in the third century BCE with the missionary journey of Mahinda Thera. It discusses how Buddhism influenced Sri Lankan society, culture, governance, and identity.

Social and Cultural Significance: Buddhism has deeply shaped Sri Lanka’s national heritage, fostering ethical values, community life, and monastic traditions that continue to influence the country’s social fabric. This section examines the historical integration of Buddhism into Sri Lankan society, highlighting its impact on language, arts, literature, and governance.

Objective integration: By examining the foundational aspects of Sri Lankan Buddhism, this chapter sets the stage for understanding how Buddhist education developed and continues to thrive as an essential aspect of religious and social life in the country.

This chapter sets the foundation by discussing Buddhism’s historical, social, and cultural integration within Sri Lanka. It explores the spread of Buddhism, its influence on Sri Lankan identity, and the role of Buddhist institutions in shaping national heritage.

Chapter 2: Historical Overview of Buddhist

Education in Sri Lanka

Historical Development: This chapter traces the evolution of Buddhist education in Sri Lanka, starting from its origins in ancient monastic schools (piriven) and progressing through the medieval and colonial periods. It details how Buddhist monasteries served as centers of learning, preserving Buddhist scriptures, and providing education in both religious and secular subjects.

Impact of Colonial Rule: The chapter explores the significant challenges faced during the colonial period, including the decline of traditional Buddhist education due to foreign rule. It highlights the resilience of Buddhist scholars and the revival efforts undertaken to restore monastic education.

Objective Integration: By providing a chronological study of Buddhist education, this chapter contextualizes how the traditional education system evolved and adapted to historical changes while maintaining its core principles.

This chapter examines the development of Buddhist education from ancient times to the present. It covers the establishment of monastic education (pirivena), its evolution during medieval and colonial periods, and the impact of key historical figures in preserving Buddhist teachings.

Chapter 3: Leading Buddhist Studies Universities

and Institutes

Contemporary Institutions: This section provides an in-depth analysis of Sri Lanka’s major Buddhist educational institutions, including:

Buddhist and Pali University of Homagama
Sri Lanka Bhikshu University, Anuradhapura
Nāgānanda International institute for Buddhist

Studies, Manel Watta

Sri Lanka International Buddhist Academy (SIBA Campus), Pallekele
Postgraduate Institute of Pali and Buddhist Studies, Kelaniya

Academic Offerings: The chapter details the programs available at these institutions, from undergraduate to doctoral levels, covering Buddhist studies, Pali and Sanskrit languages, philosophy, and contemporary subjects integrated into Buddhist education.

Global Contributions: This section discusses how these institutions have become significant contributors to international Buddhist studies, research collaborations, and the spread of Theravāda Buddhism worldwide.

Objective Integration: This chapter offers a practical understanding of Buddhist academic institutions, providing valuable insights into their educational impact, modern curriculum, and their role in preserving Buddhism.

Focusing on modern Buddhist education, this chapter provides insights into Sri Lanka’s major Buddhist universities and institutions, including their academic programs, contributions to Buddhist studies, and international collaborations.

Chapter 4: Buddhist Forest Monasteries and

Meditation Centers in Sri Lanka

Role in Spiritual Practice: This chapter presents an overview of key Buddhist forest monasteries and meditation centers in Sri Lanka, emphasizing their significance in Theravada Buddhist practice. These centers play a crucial role in training monastics and lay practitioners in meditation, mindfulness, and Buddhist philosophy.

Notable Centers: This section highlights several renowned meditation centers and forest monasteries, including Nā Uyana Āranya, Nissarana Vanaya (Mitirigala forest Hermitage), and Kudumbigala Monastery. It explores their unique contributions to both local and international meditation practitioners.

Global Influence: These centers attract international students and practitioners seeking Buddhist meditation training. The chapter discusses their importance in global Buddhist education and spiritual development.

Objective Integration: By illustrating the role of meditation centers in contemporary Buddhist education, this chapter bridges the connection between monastic education and spiritual practice, emphasizing their enduring significance in theTheravada tradition.

This chapter highlights Sri Lanka’s forest monasteries and meditation centers, detailing their significance in the Theravada tradition, the training they provide for monastic and lay practitioners, and their contributions to Buddhist meditation worldwide.

Chapter 5: The Restoration of the Bhikkhuni

Sangha and their Educational Centers

Historical Context: This chapter explores the history of bhikkhuni (female monastic) education in Sri Lanka, beginning with the arrival of Saṅghamitrā Theri in the third century BCE. It discusses the flourishing of the Bhikkhuni Sangha and its decline over time.

Modern Revitalization: The chapter highlights the contemporary revival of bhikkhuni education, including the re-establishment of ordination and the development of specialized bhikkhuni training centers.

Prominent Bhikkhuni Training Centers: It provides an overview of leading institutions such as the Sakyadhita Training and Meditation Centre, Ayya Khema Mandir, and Dambulla Bhikkhuni Training Centre, detailing their academic and spiritual programs.

Objective Integration: This section underscores the importance of bhikkhuni education in promoting gender equality in Buddhist monasticism and its role in expanding Buddhist knowledge among female practitioners.

Dedicated to the education of Buddhist nuns (bhikkhunis), this chapter explores the historical development of bhikkhuni education, modern training centers, and their role in promoting gender equality and Buddhist teachings.

Chapter 6: Contributions of Bhikkhunis to the Buddhist Community and Society

Numerous distinguished bhikkhunis have served in significant roles, such as Venerable Dr. Bhikkhuni Kusuma, Venerable Dr. Bhikkhuni Dhammananda, Venerable Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda, Venerable Bhikkhuni Hapandeniya Supeshala Maha Theri, Venerable Bhikkhuni Peliyagoda Sudarshana and others. They have contributed to the role of bhikkhuni preceptors, officiant teachers, examiners, and instructors), for the sake of Bhikkhuni Sangha.

Chapter 7: Conclusion

Reflection on Buddhist Education: This chapter summarizes the historical development, contemporary significance, and global contributions of Buddhist education in Sri Lanka. It reflects on how Buddhist teachings have been preserved, adapted, and expanded within academic and monastic settings.

Challenges and Future Directions: The chapter discusses the modern challenges faced by Buddhist education, such as balancing traditional teachings with contemporary academic needs, the role of technology in Buddhist studies, and the ongoing need for global collaboration in Buddhist scholarship.

Objective integration: By providing a comprehensive synthesis of Buddhist education’s past, present, and future, this chapter offers insights for researchers, educators, and practitioners interested in the intersection of education, religion, and cultural heritage in Sri Lanka and beyond.

The final chapter summarizes the key findings of the study, reflecting on the evolution of Buddhist education in Sri Lanka and its future trajectory. It also emphasizes the importance of preserving and adapting Buddhist education in a rapidly changing world.

Most Venerable Dr. K. Siri Sumedha Thero,

Bhikṣuṇī T.N. Gioi Huong, Huong Sen Pagoda delegation with young monks of Nigrodha Khetta Maha Pirivena, Kandy, Sri Lanka, July 12, 2023

***

Historical Overview

of Monastic Education in Sri Lanka

2.1. Early Origins of Buddhist Education in Sri Lanka

uddhist education in Sri Lanka established its foundations in the third century BCE when Buddhism was first introduced by Mahinda Thera, the son of Indian Emperor Ashoka, in the reign of the King Devānampiyatissa (Mahāvaṃsa 1912, chap. 11 - 13; Dīpavaṃsa chap. 8). It was a transformative period in the history of the island. After the acceptance of Buddhism by King Devanampiyatissa and his members of the court, Sri Lanka’s first monastery (Kālapāsāda) was established in Anuradhapura for Buddhist monks. This marked the formal Buddhist education centers in Sri Lanka (Keerthirathne,

2020).

In its early phase, monastic education relied on oral transmission to safeguard the teachings of the Buddha.⁵ Following the Baminitiya famine, during the reign of King Vatta Gāmini Abhaya (Walgambā period, 89-77 BCE), Buddhist monks in Sri Lanka, as recorded in Chapter 33 of the Mahāvaṃsa,⁶ resolved to transcribe their teachings into written form.

A number of Buddhist monastic schools (piriven) were established within ancient cities such as Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa as Buddhism spread in Sri Lanka (De Silva, 2019). These educational institutions contributed to the enhancement of the nations by providing both secular and religious education, making academics and educated Buddhist monks influential within the country’s religious and culture.

Buddhist education held a prominent role within the social and political framework of ancient Sri Lanka. This initial period facilitated the creation of a society grounded in Buddhist principles and teachings. It laid the groundwork for the advancement of Buddhist education in the centuries that followed throughout this formative era.

2.2. Development Through Ancient, Medieval, and Colonial Periods

As Buddhism became firmly established in the

“Upāli dāsako ceva, soṇako siggavo tathā; Moggaliputtena pañcamā, ete Tato mahindo iṭṭiyo, uttiyo sambalo tathā;Bhaddanāmo ca paṇḍito.” Parivārapāḷi, Bhikkhuvibhaṅgo, Soḷasamahāvāro CS CD Rom

Piṭakattayapāḷiñca, tassa aṭṭhakathampi ca; Mukhapāṭhena ānesuṃ, pubbe bhikkhū mahāmati.Hāniṃ disvāna sattānaṃ, tadā bhikkhū samāgatā;Ciraṭṭhitatthaṃ dhammassa, potthakesu likhāpayuṃ.” country, the Buddhist educational institutions experienced significant developments through the ancient, medieval, and colonial periods.

Ancient Period

In ancient times, after the monastic education system was first established, Buddhism and its educational institutions expanded across Sri Lanka due to the support and promotion from kings who championed Buddhist establishments.

King Dutugemunu (161-137 BCE), one of famous kings in the history of Sri Lanka, built the Maha stupa (Ruwanweli),⁷ and contributed to the development of Buddhist education by establishing monastic complexes in Anuradhapura (Harischandra, 1908). During this time, the Mahavihāra, Abhayagiri Vihāra, and Jetavana monasteries were built. These were the most important places in Anuradhapura. Each of these institutions evolved with distinct methods of instructing and interpreting Buddhist teachings (Somananda, 2021).

2.2.2. Medieval Period

During the medieval period, as King Vijayabahu (I) shifted the capital to Polonnaruwa (1055-1110 AD), Buddhist education experienced significance developments (Peiris, n.d.). While the king won back the region from the Chola, he took steps to improve it, such as restoring and

‘‘Kāressāmi mahāthūpaṃ.’’ iti haṭṭho mahātalaṃ;

Āruyha rattiṃ bhuñjitvā, sayito iti cintayi., Mahāvaṃsa 1912, chap.28, Verse 3.

supporting Buddhist monasteries. During this period, the educational system began to grow broader, with a greater focus on commentarial (tīkā) writing. This resulted in more in-depth studies of the Tripitaka in schools.

Prominent scholars such as Buddhaghosa, who visited the island in the fifth century, played a crucial role by translating and interpreting the Buddha’s teachings, making them more accessible and systematically taught across monastic schools. His works, especially the Visuddhimagga, became fundamental educational resources in the study of Buddhism (Baba, 2022).

2.2.3. Colonial Period

With the Portuguese arrival in 1505, and later the Dutch and British, Buddhist education faced enormous challenges. Traditional Buddhist educational institutions collapsed as a result of the colonial governments’ repeated support and funding of Christian missionary schools (Ruberu, 2013)

During the British period, despite these difficulties, Buddhist education was remarkably developed with help of citizens such Anagarika Dharmapala (Obeyesekere, 1976). Anagarika Dharmapala began to support the revival of Buddhism through restructuring of the educational system. Dharmapala played a key role in establishing schools in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century (Amunugama, 2019).

Sri Vidyasekhara Pirivena Buddhist Monastic training school Koombiyangoda Maha Vihara, Matale, Sri Lanka

2.3. Role of Significant Historical Figures and Events

During this time, the Theosophical Society, with prominent members such as Colonel Henry Steel Olcott and Madame Blavatsky, played a key role in influencing and promoting the Buddhist education system (Lavoie, 2012). They supported the Buddhist revival movement by establishing schools that offered a modern education based on the Buddhist teachings. Most of leading schools in Sri Lanka were established in this period (Ananda, Nalanda, Dharmaraja Vijay, etc.) with the help of the Buddhist revival movement. The two foremost pirivenas, Vidyodaya and Vidyalankara, were founded with the support of distinguished Buddhist monks, Hikkaduwe Sumangala Thero and Rathmalane Dharmarama Thero (Dharmadasa, 2019). Later they were first Buddhist universities in Sri Lanka. Vidyodaya became the University of Sri Jayewardenepura, and Vidyalankara became the University of Kelaniya (Gamage, 2010)

These historical periods not only show the enduring nature of Buddhist education in Sri Lanka but also how it has adapted and evolved in response to internal and external influences. Buddhist education in Sri Lanka has been transforming for hundreds of years, but it has successfully managed to maintain its roots as well as incorporating novel concepts and influences, keeping it still applicable in the modern world.

Venerable T.N. Gioi Huong and her delegation visited Sri

Vidyasekhara Pirivena Bodhi Private School on August 16, 2016.

Venerable T.N. Gioi Huong and her delegation offer the necessary items to teachers and students monks at Bodhi Sri Vidyasekhara Pirivena School on July 13, 2023.

****

Leading Universities

and Institutes for Buddhist Studies

3.1. Buddhist and Pali University - Homagama

he Buddhist and Pali University, Homagama, is one of the leading institutions in the development

of Buddhist education in Sri Lanka, dedicated to the advanced study and research of Buddhism from both a traditional and contemporary perspective.

Academic Programs

The university offers a range of programs at undergraduate, postgraduate, and doctoral levels. The undergraduate programs include Bachelor of Arts degrees in Buddhist Studies, Pali, and Sanskrit, which provide students with a deep foundation in Buddhist scriptures, languages, and philosophical doctrines.

At the postgraduate level, the university offers Master of Arts, Master of Philosophy, and Doctor of Philosophy degrees. These programs are designed to develop higher critical thinking, research skills, and advanced knowledge in various aspects of Buddhist studies. The university also offers diploma courses and certificate courses that cater to the needs of those who may not wish to commit to full- time degree programs.

Contact information:

Address: Buddhist and Pali University of Sri Lanka, Pitipana town, Homagama, Sri Lanka
Phone: +94 11 2857786/ http://www.bpu.ac.lk/
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
Website: http://www.bpu.ac.lk

The Administrative building of the Buddhist and Pali University, Homagama, Sri Lanka⁸

Source: https://www.studyinsrilanka.org/university/buddhist-pali- university-of-sri-lanka/

***

3.2. Sri Lanka Bhikshu University, Anuradhapura

Sri Lanka Bhikshu University in Anuradhapura is a specific Buddhist institution dedicated to the education and training of Buddhist monks, although it also welcomes laypersons interested in Buddhist studies. Established to preserve and propagate the teachings of Buddhism, the university plays a crucial role in the scholarly pursuit of Buddhist education in Sri Lanka.

Overview:

Located in the historic city of Anuradhapura, a place of immense religious significance and home to some of the world’s oldest Buddhist monuments (like the world’s oldest Bodhi tree 2300 years old),⁹ Sri Lanka Bhikshu University provides an ideal setting for the study of Buddhism. The university was established to foster a deep understanding of Buddhist doctrines, promote Pali and Buddhist studies, and contribute to the global discourse on Buddhism through research and scholarship.

Academic Programs

Sri Lanka Bhikshu University offers a range of academic programs designed to cater to the educational needs of Buddhist monks and lay scholars. The programs

The world’s oldest Bodhi tree (Mahābodhivamsa- Chronicle of the Bodhi Tree) is over 2,300 years old, and was planted by the Holy Ancestor Bhikkhuni Saṅghamittā Theri (daughter of Emperor A) in the ancient capital of Anuradhapura in the third century BC.

Please visit: Phật Giáo và Thánh Tích Sri Lanka - Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Tôn Giáo. 2024.

https://huongsentemple.com/index.php/vn/kinh-sach/tu-sach-bao-anh- lac/8707-sri-lanka include Bachelor of Arts degrees in Buddhist Studies, Pali, and Sanskrit, focusing on in-depth studies of Buddhist scriptures, languages, and philosophy.

For advanced studies, the university offers Master of Arts and Master of Philosophy degrees in several specialized areas of Buddhist studies. These programs are designed to enhance students’ research skills and deepen their understanding of complex philosophical concepts in Buddhism.

The university also offers doctoral programs for those looking to make significant contributions to Buddhism. These programs encourage original research and aim to develop scholars who can contribute to the academic and practical applications of Buddhist teachings.

A classroom at the Sri Lanka Bhikshu University, with

Buddhist monks in saffron robes attending a lecture¹⁰

Source: https://free-apply.com/en/university/1014400029

Contact information:

Address: Sri Lanka Bhikshu University, Anuradhapura, Sri
Phone: +94 25 223 6724/ +94 25-2236760
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
Website: https://busl.ac.lk/

Bhiksu University of Sri Lanka showing its main building with a modern architectural design and a prominent name board in Sinhala and English at the entrance¹¹

****

3.3. Nagananda international institute for Buddhist Studies

Nāgānanda international institute for Buddhist Studies, located in Sri Lanka, is a premier institution dedicated to the advanced study and research of Buddhism. It serves

Source: https://www.hirunews.lk/english/259978/anuradhapura- bhiksu-university-temporarily-closed-due-to-covid

as a bridge between traditional Buddhist teachings and contemporary scholarly analysis, providing a global perspective on Buddhist practices and philosophies.

Overview:

Nāgānanda international institute for Buddhist Studies was established with the vision of fostering a deeper understanding of Buddhism across different cultures and contexts. Situated in a serene setting conducive to academic and spiritual pursuits, the institute attracts students and scholars from around the world. It aims to promote peace and spiritual development through education and prepares students for both academic and monastic careers. The institute’s commitment to international standards of teaching and research makes it a unique center for Buddhist studies.

The Faculty of Buddhist Studies at Nāgānanda

International Institute for Buddhist Studies¹²

Academic Programs

The institute offers a comprehensive range of

academic programs that cater to diverse interests in the field of Buddhist studies. These include:

Bachelor’s Degrees in Buddhist Studies: These programs provide foundational knowledge in Buddhist teachings, Pali, Sanskrit, and related philosophical
Master’s Degrees in Buddhist Studies: Designed for a deeper exploration of Buddhist doctrines, these programs offer specializations in areas such as Buddhist philosophy, history, and cultural
Doctoral Programs: for those seeking to contribute original research to the field, the institute provides PhD programs that encourage the exploration of complex topics in Buddhist studies and inter- religious dialogue.
Certificate and Diploma Courses: These short- term programs are tailored for individuals looking to gain a basic understanding of Buddhism or to enhance their knowledge without committing to a full degree program.

View of Nāgānanda International Institute in Bopitiya¹³

Contact information:

Address: Nāgānanda international institute for Buddhist Studies, Bopitiya,
Sri Lanka
Phone: +94 11 2904 666
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
Website: http://www.niibs.lk

The Fourth Convocation of Nāgānanda

International Institute¹⁴

The Nāgānanda International Institute for Buddhist Studies stands out for its commitment to excellence in the field of Buddhist education, providing a nurturing environment that supports both academic achievement and personal growth. Its programs are designed to bridge the gap between ancient wisdom and modern challenges, making it a pivotal institution for those looking to study Buddhism in depth.

Source: https://english.lankapuvath.lk/2023/12/08/niibs/

Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences at

Nāgānanda International Institute¹⁵

***

3.4. Sri Lanka International Buddhist Academy (Siba Campus)

Sri Lanka international Buddhist Academy, commonly known as SIBA Campus, is a prestigious institution located in Kandy, Sri Lanka, dedicated to the advanced study and dissemination of Buddhist knowledge and education. It combines traditional Buddhist teachings with modern academic disciplines, making it a unique hub for both religious and secular studies.

Overview:

Established with the aim of promoting Buddhist principles and fostering a deeper understanding of Buddhism globally, SIBA Campus operates under the auspices of the Sri Dalada Maligawa (Temple of the Sacred tooth Relic), which is one of the most revered places in Sri Lanka. The academy is set in a tranquil environment

Source: https://niibsbookstore.com/faculty-of-humanities-and- social-sciences/

conducive to study and meditation, equipped with modern facilities to support its educational programs. SIBA attracts a diverse student body from around the world, reflecting its commitment to international collaboration and intercultural understanding.

Sri Lanka International Buddhist Academy, Kandy¹⁶

Academic Programs:

SIBA offers a range of programs designed to cater to various educational needs, from undergraduate studies to postgraduate research:
Bachelor’s Degrees: These include specialized programs in Buddhist studies, Pali, philosophy and more, integrating traditional teachings with contemporary
Master’s Degrees: Advanced studies at SIBA feature master’s programs in Buddhist studies, religious studies, and related fields, focusing on in- depth research and

Source: https://bizenglish.adaderana.lk/three-new-degree-to-siba- campus/

Doctoral Programs: for those aiming to pursue academic careers or high-level research, SIBA provides doctoral programs in Buddhist philosophy and interdisciplinary studies involving comparative
Diploma and Certificate Courses: These programs are ideal for individuals seeking introductory or specialized knowledge without the commitment required for a full degree.

Contact information:

Address: Sri Lanka international Buddhist Academy, Pallekele, Kundasale, Kandy, Sri Lanka
Phone: +94 81 24 21 693
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Website: http://www.siba.edu.lk. sibacampus.com

The front view of Sri Lanka International Buddhist Academy, Kandy¹⁷

Source: https://www.srilanka.travel/buddhist-places/learning- php

3.5. Postgraduate institute of Pali and Buddhist Studies

The Postgraduate institute of Pali and Buddhist Studies (PIPBS) is a renowned institution in Sri Lanka, dedicated to the advanced study and research of Pali and Buddhist Studies. It is an integral part of the University of Kelaniya and is recognized for its scholarly contributions to the field of Buddhist studies.

Overview:

Established to promote and enhance the study of Pali, the language of the Theravada Buddhist scriptures and Buddhist studies, the institute is located near the University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. It aims to provide a deep understanding of Buddhist teachings, philosophy, and history through rigorous academic inquiry. The institute attracts students and scholars from around the world, serving as a center for academic excellence and intercultural dialogue on Buddhism.

Postgraduate Institute of Pali and Buddhist Studies¹⁸

Source: kln.ac.lk

Academic Programs:

PIPBS offers a range of postgraduate academic programs designed to cater to the needs of students interested in deepening their understanding of Buddhism and Pali:

Master of Arts (MA) in Buddhist Studies: This program offers comprehensive training in Buddhist philosophy, ethics, and history, emphasizing critical thinking and research.
Master of Philosophy (MPhil) and Doctor of Philosophy (PhD): These research degrees involve extensive study and original research in areas such as Buddhist doctrine, Pali language, and comparative religion. They are designed for students who wish to contribute new insights to the
Postgraduate Diploma in Buddhist Studies: This is a one-year program intended for those who wish to gain a structured understanding of Buddhist studies without committing to a full master’s
Certificate Courses: Short-term courses that provide an introduction to Pali language and Buddhist studies, suitable for beginners or those looking to expand their knowledge in specific

Contact information:

Address: Postgraduate institute of Pali and Buddhist Studies, Bulugaha Junction, Kelaniya
Phone: +94113051085 | +94112809322
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Website: https://pgipbs.kln.ac.lk/

Front view of the Postgraduate Institute of Pali &

Buddhist Studies (PGIPBS), University of Kelaniya¹⁹

****

3.6. Detailed Contact Information for All Post- Graduation Institutes of Sri Lankan Universities

Offering Buddhist Studies

University of Kelaniya

Faculty: Faculty of Humanities
Department: Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies

Source: https://www.linkedin.com/posts/rumeshi-diwyanjalee- 987143282_opening-ceremony-of-the-postgraduate-institute-activity- 7159566935972573184-3XTr/

Postgraduate institute: Postgraduate institute of Pali and Buddhist Studies
Programs: MA, MPhil, PhD in Buddhist Studies; Postgraduate Diploma and Certificate Courses
Contact: Kelaniya, Sri Lanka; +94 (0112) 903 952;

+94 (0112) 903 953, https://fgs.kln.ac.lk/

3.6.2. Buddhist and Pali University of Homagama

Programs: BA, MA, MPhil, PhD in Buddhist Studies; diploma and certificate courses
Contact: Pitipana town, Homagama, Sri Lanka;

+9411-2580609; Email : This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

3.6.3. University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda

Programs: MA, PhD in Buddhist Studies
Contact: Gangodawila, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka; +94 11 288 1558; This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

3.6.4. University of Colombo

Programs: MA, MPhil, PhD in Buddhist Studies
Contact: Colombo 03, Sri Lanka; +94 112 581 835; https://cmb.ac.lk/postgraduate-programmes

****

Buddhist Forest Monasteries and Meditation Centers in Sri Lanka

ri Lanka is renowned for the practice of Theravada meditation practices, and there are various forest monasteries and meditation centers that provide facilities for spiritual practices for both local and international practitioners. Buddhist monks, nuns, and laypeople practice meditation in the forest monasteries. These monasteries play a major role in cultivating mindfulness and practicing Buddhist teachings. These centers serve as havens for those seeking to deepen their understanding of Buddhist teachings and to practice meditation in a setting that encourages reflection and mindfulness. These institutions often cater to a range of practitioners, from novices to experienced meditators, and offer various programs that include meditation retreats, Dhamma talks, and other spiritual activities. The monastic discipline and the daily schedule are designed to cultivate discipline, mindfulness,

and insight in accordance with the Buddha’s teachings.

****

4.1. Na Uyana Aranya

Location: Nestled in the lush forests of the Kurunegala District in Sri Lanka, Na Uyana Aranya offers a serene and secluded environment ideal for meditation and spiritual practice. The monastery is spread across a large expanse of forest, providing a natural setting that enhances the meditative experience.

Overview: Na Uyana Aranya is one of the largest forest monasteries in Sri Lanka, dedicated to the practice and teaching of Theravāda Buddhism. It attracts a diverse group of practitioners from around the world, including both monastics and laypersons. The center is well- regarded for maintaining strict monastic discipline and a silent atmosphere conducive to deep meditation.

Walking path at Na Uyana Monastery²⁰

Source: https://www.tripadvisor.in/Attraction_Review-g2202501- d4292235-Reviews-Na_Uyana_Monastery-Melsiripura_North_ html

Meditation Programs:

Vipassana (insight Meditation): Na Uyana Aranya offers intensive vipassana meditation retreats guided by experienced monastic teachers. These retreats focus on the development of mindfulness and concentration, leading practitioners through a series of meditative techniques that explore the nature of impermanence, suffering, and non-self. The practice is rooted in the Satipatthana Sutta, the foundational text of mindfulness meditation in Theravāda Buddhism.
Metta (Loving-kindness Meditation): Alongside vipassana, the monastery also emphasizes the cultivation of metta, or loving-kindness This practice involves the development of unconditional positive emotions towards all beings. It serves as a complementary practice to vipassana, aimed at softening the mind and opening the heart, which supports the deepening of insight.

Daily Schedule: The daily routine at Na Uyana Aranya is structured to support rigorous practice and includes:

Early morning meditation sessions begin before dawn
Group sittings and individual practice throughout the day
Periods dedicated to walking meditation to balance the intense sitting practice
Dhamma talks and discussions held regularly to deepen understanding of Buddhist teaching
Evening sessions that include chanting and further meditation until late at night

Accommodation and Facilities: Practitioners are provided with simple and modest accommodations that reflect the ascetic nature of monastic forest life. The kutis (huts) are typically scattered throughout The forest, offering solitude and minimal distractions. The facilities are designed to support a life of simplicity and renunciation, encouraging practitioners to focus fully on their inner work.

Monks in the forest²¹

Source: https://nauyana.org/na-uyana-english/

Community and Environment: The community at Na Uyana Aranya is supportive and focused on spiritual growth. The environment is one of mutual respect and dedication to practice. Interaction among practitioners is kept to a minimum to maintain the integrity of the silent retreat atmosphere.

Na Uyana Aranya represents a commitment to the traditional practice of meditation as taught by the Buddha. It offers a unique opportunity for deep personal transformation in the heart of Sri Lanka’s ancient monastic forest tradition.

4.2. Nissarana Vanaya

Location: Nissarana Vanaya, also known as Mitirigala forest Hermitage, is situated in the Colombo District of Sri Lanka. This monastery is located in a tranquil forest setting that offers a perfect environment for deep meditation and introspection.

Overview: Nissarana Vanaya is a revered forest monastery that has been a center for Buddhist monastic life and meditation for decades. Established with the vision of providing a rigorous and secluded environment for serious Dhamma practice, it adheres to the Theravada Buddhist tradition. The hermitage is known for its disciplined approach to monastic life and meditation, attracting both local and international monks and lay practitioners who are serious about advancing their practice.

A path for walking meditation at Nissarana Vanaya²²

Meditation Programs:

Vipassana (Insight Meditation): The primary focus at Nissarana Vanaya is on vipassana meditation, as taught in the Theravada tradition. The meditation techniques practiced here are based on the Satipatthana Sutta, emphasizing mindfulness and concentration to develop insight into the nature of Practitioners are guided through intensive meditation sessions that explore the three marks of existence: impermanence, suffering, and non-self.
Structured Meditation Retreats: Nissarana Vanaya offers structured meditation retreats that can last from a few weeks to several months, depending on the commitment and capability of the practitioner. These retreats are designed to immerse participants in meditation, with guidance from experienced monks who have a deep understanding of the

Source: https://www.nissarana.lk/meditate-with-us/retreats/

Monks on daily almsround²³

Daily Schedule: The daily routine at Nissarana Vanaya is structured to support intensive meditation practice:

Predawn sessions of meditation
Scheduled group meditation sessions throughout the day, complemented by individual practice times
Walking meditation periods to balance the intense practice of sitting meditation
Regular Dhamma talks to provide instruction and inspiration, often given by senior monks of the monastery
Evening chanting and meditation sessions that continue the focus on spiritual development

Accommodation and Facilities: Nissarana Vanaya provides modest and functional accommodations that reflect the austere lifestyle of forest monks. Practitioners stay in individual kutis (huts) scattered throughout the

https://www.nissarana.lk/about-us/

forest, which are simple and provide the necessary solitude for meditation. The facilities are designed to minimize distractions and promote a life focused on spiritual practice.

Outdoor Dhamma platform²⁴

4.3. Kanduboda Siyane Vipassana Meditation Centre

Location: Kanduboda Siyane Vipassana Meditation Centre is located in Delgoda, a serene town in the Western Province of Sri Lanka. The center is set in a tranquil environment that supports deep meditation and introspection, away from the hustle and bustle of urban life.

Overview: Established to promote and teach the practice of vipassana meditation as taught by Mahasi Sayadaw, Kanduboda Siyane Vipassana Meditation Centre is one of the leading meditation centers in Sri Lanka dedicated to the Theravāda Buddhist tradition. The centre

Source: https://www.nissarana.lk/

is recognized for its structured approach to meditation, which caters to both novices and seasoned meditators.

The monks at Kanduboda Siyane Vipassana Meditation Centre²⁵

Meditation Programs:

Mahasi Sayadaw Technique of Vipassana Meditation: The centre specializes in the Mahasi Sayadaw technique, which emphasizes the practice of mindfulness and noting as a method to develop insight into the nature of phenomena. This technique involves continuous and

Source: https://www.asiamantra.com/packages/kanduboda-siyane- vipassana-meditation-centre-kanduboda

meticulous attention to physical sensations, thoughts, and emotions, facilitating a profound understanding of the three marks of existence: impermanence, suffering, and non-self.

Structured Meditation Retreats: Kanduboda Siyane Vipassana Meditation Centre offers retreats that vary in length, providing opportunities for deep and sustained practice. These retreats are designed to accommodate people at different stages of their meditation journey, from beginners seeking an introduction to the basics of vipassana, to advanced practitioners looking to deepen their practice in a supportive and disciplined environment.

Meditation²⁶

Daily Schedule: The daily routine at the centre is intensive, encouraging practitioners to immerse themselves fully in the practice:

Source: https://www.asiamantra.com/packages/kanduboda-siyane- vipassana-meditation-centre-kanduboda

Early morning meditation sessions start at
Multiple group meditation sessions throughout the day to maintain continuous practice and
individual meditation practice periods allowing for personal reflection and deeper
Walking meditation to balance the sedentary nature of sitting meditation and to cultivate mindfulness in movement.
Evening discussions and Dhamma talks that offer guidance and insights into the meditation practice and Buddhist teachings.
Night sessions for further meditation, reinforcing the day’s practice and insights.

Accommodation and Facilities: The accommodations at Kanduboda Siyane Vipassana Meditation Centre are modest and designed to support a meditative lifestyle. Practitioners stay in simple rooms or kutis that provide the necessary privacy and quiet for intensive meditation. The centre is equipped with basic amenities to ensure a comfortable stay while maintaining an atmosphere conducive to spiritual practice.

Community and Support: The community at Kanduboda is focused on meditation and spiritual growth. The environment is one of mutual respect and collective endeavor towards enlightenment. Experienced instructors and fellow meditators provide support and guidance, fostering a conducive atmosphere for learning and spiritual advancement.

Kanduboda Siyane Vipassana Meditation Centre

remains a vital institution for those seeking to explore and practice vipassana meditation in the tradition of Mahasi Sayadaw. Its structured programs and supportive environment make it a sought-after destination for both local and international meditators dedicated to the path of insight.

View of Kanduboda Siyane Vipassana Meditation Centre²⁷

4.4. Kudumbigala Monastery:

A Sanctuary of Serenity and Spiritual Practice

Location: Kudumbigala Monastery is situated in the serene wilderness eleven miles from Panama and seventeen miles from Kumana Village, within the Colombo District of Sri Lanka. This historic monastery is perched amidst dense forests, offering a tranquil retreat from the bustling cities.

Source: https://www.asiamantra.com/packages/kanduboda-siyane- vipassana-meditation-centre-kanduboda

Kudumbigala Monastery Caves²⁸

Historical Background: Established in 246 BC

Source: https://www.tripadvisor.in/Attraction_Review-g3348959- d5995999-Reviews-Kudumbigala_Monastery-Arugam_Bay_Eastern_ html

during the reign of King Devanampiyatissa, Kudumbigala Monastery was initially conceived as a sanctuary for Buddhist monks seeking solitude from urban life. The complex is an archaeological marvel, home to over 200 rock caves that have been used by monks throughout the centuries for meditation and residence. The discovery of inscriptions in Brahmi script and other artifacts in the Maha Sudharshana Lena cave indicates the monastery’s ancient origins and its establishment as an Aranya Senasana (forest hermitage) in the pre-Christian era. Notably, the Maha Sudharshana Lena was historically gifted to the arahats by Nandimitra, one of King Dutugemunu’s ten giant warriors, marking it as a place of significant spiritual and historical value.

Turbulent Times: The monastery’s peaceful existence was disrupted in 1994 when it became a casualty of the ethnic conflict, leading to its abandonment after the massacre of seventeen civilians in nearby Panama by the LTTE. It remained uninhabited and forgotten until the end of the civil conflict in 2009, standing as a solitary symbol of the challenges faced by the Sinhalese civilization.

Resurgence and Spiritual Practice: Post-2009, Kudumbigala has been revived as a center for spiritual practice. The monastery now hosts about fifteen monks who live in voluntary isolation, pursuing enlightenment through rigorous meditation practices. These monks follow no stringent rules or external governance, allowing them the freedom to explore their spiritual paths independently.

Monastic Life and Environment: The monastery’s environment is perfectly suited for meditation and spiritual pursuits. Monks dwell in kutis nestled under giant boulders or within the secluded caves scattered

throughout the surrounding forest. The area is known for its towering boulders and dense forest paths that lead to the summit, where monks and visitors alike can experience profound peace and introspection. The journey to the top is a meditative experience in itself, highlighted by the natural beauty and the historical and spiritual significance of the landscape.

Community interaction and Teachings: Despite their solitude, the monks occasionally interact with laypeople, particularly during Dhamma sermons and when receiving food offerings from villagers. A small hall next to an ancient cylindrical dagoba—the only one of its kind to survive in Sri Lanka—serves as a communal space for dining and occasional preaching. However, these interactions are limited as the monks prioritize their personal spiritual practices and the attainment of higher wisdom before preaching or teaching.

Kudumbigala Monastery²⁹

Source: https://www.hideawayarugambay.com/explore/kudumbigala- html

Cultural and Spiritual Heritage: Kudumbigala continues to be a vital spiritual site, preserving the ascetic traditions of Buddhist monastic life. It offers a unique glimpse into the life of meditation and spiritual pursuit that has been continuous for over two millennia, except for brief interruptions. The monastery remains a testament to the resilience and enduring spirit of Buddhist monasticism in Sri Lanka, attracting those who seek to experience its tranquil and mystical atmosphere.

4.5. Labunoruwa Aranya Senasanaya, a Refuge for Spiritual Contemplation

Location: Labunoruwa Aranya Senasanaya is situated in a secluded area in the Anuradhapura District of Sri Lanka, surrounded by dense forest and natural tranquility. This remote location makes it an ideal retreat for monks and lay practitioners seeking a peaceful environment for deep meditation and spiritual practice.

Labunoruwa Aranya Senasanaya³⁰

https://www.hideawayarugambay.com/explore/kudumbigala-monas html

Overview: Labunoruwa Aranya Senasanaya is known for its commitment to the Theravāda Buddhist tradition, emphasizing simplicity and asceticism. Established as a hermitage for those wishing to practice meditation away from the distractions of everyday life, it provides a supportive environment for personal and spiritual growth.

Spiritual Practices and Meditation: The primary focus at Labunoruwa Aranya Senasanaya is on meditation, particularly vipassana (insight meditation) and metta (loving-kindness meditation). These practices are central to the monks’daily routines, fostering a deep understanding of Buddhist teachings and facilitating progress towards enlightenment.

Monastic Life: Monks at Labunoruwa Aranya Senasanaya live in kutis, small huts scattered throughout the forest, which provide the necessary solitude for meditation. The daily schedule includes periods of meditation, chanting, and personal reflection. Monks also engage in walking meditation, using the paths carved through the forest to practice mindfulness in movement.

Community Interaction: Interaction within the community is minimal, preserving the solitude and silence necessary for meditation. However, the monastery occasionally opens its doors to laypeople seeking spiritual guidance or a retreat from the secular world. These visitors are welcomed into the community to participate in meditation sessions and receive teachings from the senior monks.

Educational and Spiritual Outreach: While primarily focused on monastic life, Labunoruwa Aranya Senasanaya also contributes to the broader Buddhist

community through educational programs and spiritual outreach. These programs aim to educate the public on the principles of Buddhism and the practice of meditation. Additionally, the monastery sometimes hosts workshops and retreats, which are led by experienced monks and are open to both monks and lay practitioners.

Preservation of Environment and Tradition: The monastery is dedicated to preserving not only the spiritual traditions of Buddhism but also the natural environment surrounding it. This commitment is reflected in the monks’ lifestyle, which is closely aligned with environmental conservation principles. They maintain the forest and its biodiversity, recognizing the natural world as an integral part of their spiritual practice.

Spiritual Haven: Labunoruwa Aranya Senasanaya remains a beacon for those seeking to deepen their understanding of Buddhism and themselves. Its secluded setting, combined with the dedication to traditional Buddhist practices, makes it a unique and revered place for spiritual seekers from Sri Lanka and beyond.

Labunoruwa Aranya Senasanaya³¹

https://amazinglanka.com/wp/kudumbigala/

****

The Restoration

of the Bhikkhuni Sangha

5.1. Historical Overview

The history of the Bhikkhuni (nuns) Order in Sri Lanka dates back to the third century BCE, during the reign of King Devanampiyatissa (BC 250-210). Mahinda Thera, the son of Indian Emperor Ashoka, introduced Buddhism to Sri Lanka, and soon after, his sister Saṅghamittā Theri (nun) arrived with a group of bhikkhunis from India to Sri Lanka. They established the Bhikkhuni Sangha, ordaining Queen Anulā and her retinue as the first Sri Lankan nuns. This incident marked the beginning of the bhikkhuni order in Sri Lanka, which flourished for several centuries, contributing significantly to the spread and practice of Buddhism among women. According to the Chine’s history, 1,500 years ago, Sri Lankan bhikkhunis carried the bhikkhuni order to China. This incident proves that the bhikkhuni order was stronger and more influential in Sri Lanka.

The origin and legacy of the Bhikkhuni Order in Sri Lanka: Saṅghamittā Theri’s arrival with the sacred Bodhi sapling, establishing the Bhikkhuni Sangha and paving the way for women’s contributions to Buddhism in Sri Lanka³²

Later the Bhikkhuni Sangha faced numerous challenges over the centuries. Political upheavals, foreign invasions, and internal conflicts contributed to its gradual decline despite its early success in Sri Lanka. By the eleventh century CE, the Bhikkhuni Sangha had almost completely disappeared from Sri Lanka. The lack of ordained nuns led to a cessation of the ordination process, as both male and female monks are required for a full ordination ceremony. This decline was exacerbated by the changing social and political landscape, which increasingly marginalized the

https://www.sundaytimes.lk/171203/plus/lankan-bhikkhunis-took- bhikkhuni-sasana-to-the-world-271068.html

role of women in the monastic community.

The modern revival of the Bhikkhuni Sangha (Sila Mata) in Sri Lanka began in the late twentieth century. Efforts to restore the lineage were initiated by both local and international Buddhist communities. In 1996, a significant milestone was achieved when a group of Sri Lankan women received full ordination as bhikkhunis in Sarnath, India, with the support of Taiwanese nuns. This historic event marked the re-establishment of the Bhikkhuni Sangha in Sri Lanka. Since then, numerous ordination ceremonies have been conducted, and several bhikkhuni education centers have been established to support the training and education of nuns.

Saṅghamittā Theri, daughter of Indian King Ashoka³³

Saṅghamittā Theri ancestor

https://ibhforum.org/the-splendid-mission-of-sangamitta-Theri-a- turning-point-for-the-sri-lankan-culture/

On March 14, 1998, inamaluwe Sumangala Thero organized the ordination of women on Sri Lankan soil, the first such event in over a thousand years. At the Rangiri Dambulla Monastery, in the same hall where men ordain, twenty-two former dasa sīla mātās ordained. Five senior bhikkhus and the newly ordained Sri Lankan bhikkhunis, who had ordained the previous month in Bodhgaya, performed the ordination.

Sri Lanka Nuns

Since 1998, bhikkhuni ordinations occur annually in Dambulla, Navagula, and at the Dekanduwala Meditation Centre at Horana. Women can also receive training at the Sakyadhita Training and Meditation Centre in Panadura and at the Ayya Khema Mandir in Colombo, with additional training centers in the planning stage.

These efforts have been instrumental in revitalizing the Bhikkhuni Sangha, providing women with opportunities to engage in monastic life and contribute to the spread of

Buddhism.

The Bhikkhuni Order, one of the four assemblies established by the Buddha, played a significant role in early Buddhist history. However, in Sri Lanka, this monastic lineage disappeared for nearly a thousand years due to famine, disease, and social changes. It was only in the late twentieth century that efforts to restore the order began, culminating in formal ordinations in Bodhgaya and Sarnath in the 1990s. Despite this revival, bhikkhunis continue to face challenges, including resistance from bhikkhus, lack of government recognition, and societal marginalization. Many monasteries struggle with financial support, and young women lack encouragement to enter monastic life. Yet, through perseverance and dedication, the bhikkhuni community has gradually re-established itself, growing in numbers and influence both in Sri Lanka and internationally.

Beyond their spiritual practice, bhikkhunis make significant contributions to modern Sri Lankan society. They play an active role in education by teaching in monasteries and universities, providing ethical and spiritual guidance to young nuns and laypeople. Many bhikkhunis are also trained in psychological counseling, offering support to women facing hardships. In addition, they engage in social work, assisting the poor, providing disaster relief, and promoting community well-being. Their efforts extend to interfaith dialogue, where they collaborate with religious leaders to address social issues. Despite ongoing challenges, the Bhikkhuni Order continues to thrive, helping to restore the fourfold Buddhist community and ensuring its relevance in contemporary society.

***

5.2. Education Programs and Curriculums in Prominent Bhikkhuni Education Centers

in Sri Lanka

In recent years, a number of prominent bhikkhuni education centers dedicated to the training and education of Buddhist nuns has been established in Sri Lanka. These institutions aim to provide comprehensive academic and spiritual education, ensuring that bhikkhunis are well- equipped to engage in both monastic duties and community service. The centers play a prominent role in promoting the revival and sustainability of the Bhikkhuni Sangha, ensuring a new generation of educated and empowered nuns.

The education programs at these centers are designed to integrate traditional Buddhist teachings with modern academic disciplines. The curriculum typically includes:

Buddhist Philosophy and Ethics: In-depth studies of Buddhist doctrines, ethics, and philosophy, with a focus on the Theravada tradition.
Pali and Sanskrit Languages: Training in Pali, the language of the Theravada Buddhist scriptures, and Sanskrit, to facilitate a deeper understanding of the Buddhist texts.
Vinaya (Monastic Discipline): Detailed instruction on the Vinaya, the regulatory framework for the monastic community, which is essential for maintaining monastic discipline and order.
Meditation Practices: Training in various forms of meditation, including vipassana (insight meditation) and metta (loving-kindness meditation), to develop mindfulness, concentration, and compassion.

Modern Subjects: Courses in modern subjects such as psychology, sociology, and environmental studies, to help bhikkhunis address contemporary issues and engage with the broader
Leadership and Community Service: Programs designed to develop leadership skills and prepare bhikkhunis for roles in community service and social

5.3. Prominent Bhikkhuni Piriven (Sila Mata) in Sri Lanka

Overview: Bhikkhuni piriven (sila mata) are specialized monastic schools for Buddhist nuns (bhikkhunis) in Sri Lanka. These institutions, recognized under the Ministry of Education’s Pirivena Section, provide comprehensive religious and secular education to female monastics. The curriculum integrates traditional Buddhist teachings with modern subjects, promoting holistic development and preparing bhikkhunis for various roles within the monastic and lay communities.

Notable bhikkhuni piriven: Here are some of the prominent bhikkhuni piriven in Sri Lanka:

Sri Subodha Sila Mata Pirivena

Location: Kandy

Overview: Sri Subodha Sila Matha Pirivena is a well-respected institution located in the cultural capital of Kandy. It is dedicated to the education and training of bhikkhunis, focusing on both spiritual and academic

excellence.

Academic Programs:

Buddhist Philosophy and Ethics: Courses in Theravada Buddhist philosophy, ethics, and teachings
Pali and Sanskrit Studies: Comprehensive training in Pali and Sanskrit languages
Vinaya (monastic discipline): Detailed study of the Vinaya Pitaka
Meditation Practices: Regular sessions and retreats for vipassana and metta meditation.
Modern Subjects: Classes in English, Information Technology, and Social

Contact information:

Address: Sri Subodha Sila Matha Pirivena, Kandy, Sri Lanka
Phone: +94 81 223 3521

5.3.2. Parapaduwa Sila Matha Pirivena

Location: Dodanduwa

Overview: Parapaduwa Sila Matha Pirivena is situated in the serene coastal town of Dodanduwa. This institution is renowned for its disciplined environment and rigorous academic programs.

Academic Programs:

Buddhist Textual Studies: In-depth courses on Buddhist scriptures

Monastic Training: Training in monastic practices and community service
Language Studies: Pali, Sinhala, and English language courses
Meditation Programs: Regular meditation sessions focusing on mindfulness and concentration
General Education: Subjects like mathematics, science, and history

Contact information:

Address: Parapaduwa Sila Matha Pirivena, Dodanduwa, Sri Lanka

5.3.3. Gothami Sila Matha Pirivena

Location: Colombo

Overview: Gothami Sila Matha Pirivena is a prominent educational institution for bhikkhunis in the bustling city of Colombo. It combines traditional monastic education with contemporary academic disciplines.

Academic Programs:

Buddhist Studies: Courses on Buddhist philosophy, history, and ethics
Vinaya Studies: Intensive training on the Vinaya Pitaka
Language Proficiency: Classes in Pali, Sinhala, and English
Meditation and Mindfulness: Structured programs for meditation and mindfulness practices
Modern Education: Incorporation of subjects like computer science, environmental studies, and psychology

Contact information:

Address: Gothami Sila Matha Pirivena, Colombo, Sri Lanka

5.3.4. Saṅghamittā Sila Matha Pirivena

Location: Galle

Overview: Saṅghamittā Sila Matha Pirivena, located in the historic city of Galle, is an institution dedicated to the comprehensive education and training of bhikkhunis. Named after the revered Bhikkhuni Saṅghamittā, the pirivena focuses on both spiritual and academic growth.

Academic Programs:

Buddhist Studies: Courses covering Buddhist scriptures, philosophy, and history
Vinaya Training: Detailed study and practice of monastic discipline
Language Courses: Instruction in Pali, Sinhala, and English
Meditation: Regular sessions and retreats for various forms of meditation
Modern Subjects: Classes in subjects like computer science, environmental studies, and social sciences

Contact information:

Address: Saṅghamittā Sila Matha Pirivena, Galle, Sri Lanka

5.3.5. Manelwatta Sila Matha Pirivena

Location: Kelaniya

Overview: Manelwatta Sila Matha Pirivena in Kelaniya is renowned for its disciplined academic environment and emphasis on Buddhist teachings. The Pirivena aims to provide a balanced education that integrates spiritual and secular knowledge.

Academic Programs:

Buddhist Philosophy: Comprehensive courses in Theravada Buddhist philosophy and ethics
Pali and Sanskrit Studies: Advanced language courses to deepen understanding of sacred texts
Vinaya: Training in monastic rules and regulations
Meditation Practices: Focused sessions on mindfulness and concentration practices
General Education: Inclusion of modern subjects such as mathematics, science, and IT (information technology),

Contact information:

Address: Manelwatta Sila Matha Pirivena, Kelaniya, Sri Lanka

5.3.6. Anula Sila Matha Pirivena

Location: Anuradhapura

Overview: Anula Sila Matha Pirivena, located in the ancient city of Anuradhapura, is dedicated to the education and spiritual training of bhikkhunis. Named after the first Sri Lankan bhikkhuni, the Pirivena upholds a strong tradition of monastic education.

Academic Programs:

Buddhist Textual Studies: In-depth study of Buddhist texts and scriptures
Vinaya Training: Detailed instruction in monastic discipline
Language Courses: Classes in Pali, Sinhala, and English
Meditation Programs: Structured sessions and retreats for meditation practices
General Education: Inclusion of subjects like mathematics, science, and humanities

Contact information:

Address: Anula Sila Matha Pirivena, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka

5.4. Temples of Dasa Sila Matha

In addition to numerous nunneries, especially in rural regions, there are thousands of novices (samaneris) and dasa sila matha (matas) who continue maintaining the traditional Ten Precepts (samaneris). That has been the traditional practice for nuns in Sri Lanka for many years.

In Sri Lanka, during the period between the revival of the Bhikkhuni Order when it was not fully established, women who were ordained and wore yellow robes resided in arama monasteries, adhering to the Ten Precepts, were referred to as dasa sila matha or sila matha.

These dasa sila matha believe that adhering to the Ten Precepts is sufficient for their spiritual practice throughout their lives. They feel no need to become fully ordained nuns (bhikkhunis), who would be required to follow the 311 rules outlined in the Bhikkhuni Patimokkha.

Bodhimalu Aramaya Temple

Location: Gampolawatta, Gampola

Overview: This two-story building, established by samaneris, upholds the tradition of the Ten Precepts and therefore does not seek bhikkhuni ordination from overseas.

Lead abbess is Reverend Aluthgama Chandima Theri. Currently there are six novice nuns (samaneris) studying and living with her.

Dr. Siri Sumedha Thero, Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong, Rev.

Aluthgama Chandima Theri, and nun sangha

Practice Programs:

Daily Chanting and Worship: Morning and evening chanting sessions and Buddha puja
Meditation Programs: Regular meditation sessions focusing on mindfulness and concentration practices
Dhamma Education: Classes on Buddhist teachings and sutta study for laypeople and resident nuns
General Education: Training and education for young nuns and girl students
Poya Day Observances: Special programs including Eight Precept observance, Dhamma talks, and meditation on full-moon days

Dr. Siri Sumedha Thero and his family,

Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong, Rev. Aluthgama Chandima

Thero, and the nun sangha

Contact information:

Address: Situated in the Gampolawatta area of Gampola, within the Kandy District of Sri Lanka’s Central Province
Phone: 071 679 8680 / 076 784 1109

Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.; This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

***

5.5. Bhikkhuni Training Centers

5.5.1. Ayya Khema international Buddhist Mandir

Location: Horana, Colombo

Overview: Ayya Khema international Buddhist Meditation Centre was founded by Late Venerable Dr. Bhikkuni Kusuma, is a prominent institution dedicated to the education and spiritual training of bhikkhunis in Sri Lanka. Named after the renowned German Buddhist nun Ayya Khema, the Mandir focuses on providing a robust foundation in Buddhist teachings and practices. It is situated in Colombo, offering a serene environment conducive to both academic pursuits and meditation.

The late Venerable Kusuma was the first nun in modern times to be fully ordained as a Buddhist nun in the Theravada sect. The Ayya Khema meditation centre, located quietly on a tree-lined street in a village at Batuwitta Crossroads in Horana, Sri Lanka, is quiet and simple, with a small Bodhi tree and a white stupa to which the resident nuns (currently two) make offerings of flowers harvested from their garden every morning and evening. Though small, the centre is at the forefront of an international movement to restore full bhikkhunī ordination for women

in Buddhism.

The ground stone of Ayya Khema international Meditation Centre

Academic Programs: The centre offers a comprehensive range of programs aimed at nurturing the intellectual and spiritual growth of the bhikkhunis.

Basic and Advanced Pali Studies: These programs provide students with a strong foundation in Pali, the language of the Theravada Buddhist Courses range from introductory levels to advanced studies, ensuring a deep understanding of the texts.
Vinaya (Monastic Discipline): Detailed instruction on the Vinaya Pitaka, focusing on the rules and regulations that govern monastic This program is essential for maintaining discipline and integrity

within the Bhikkhuni Sangha.

Bhikkhuni Ayya Khema and her European disciples

Meditation Retreats: Regular meditation retreats are conducted to help bhikkhunis develop mindfulness, concentration, and insight. These retreats follow traditional Theravada meditation techniques, including vipassana and metta practices.

Contact information:

Address: 37 Batuwita Junction, Olaboduwa, Horana, Sri Lanka

Phone: +94 (034) 225 3971 / +94 (011) 250 1194/

+94716809247/

Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. or dilly_weera@ hotmail.com/ This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

5.5.2 Dambulla Bhikkhuni Training Centre

Location: Dambulla

Overview: Dambulla Bhikkhuni Training Centre is located in the historic city of Dambulla, known for its ancient Buddhist temples and caves. The center is dedicated to providing a holistic education to bhikkhunis, combining rigorous academic training with practical community service.

Dambulla Buddhist Cave

The Dambulla Bhikkhuni Training Centre in Sri Lanka, established by inamaluwe Sumangala, is a significant location for the restoration of the Theravāda Bhikkhuni Sangha (community of fully ordained nuns) and has been a center for bhikkhuni ordinations since 1998.

Academic Programs: The centre offers a range of programs designed to equip bhikkhunis with the knowledge and skills necessary for both spiritual and community leadership.

Buddhist Philosophy: In-depth courses on Buddhist doctrines, ethics, and philosophy, focusing on the Theravada tradition. These courses aim to foster a profound understanding of the Dhamma.
Meditation: Regular meditation sessions and retreats are integral to the training These include both guided and individual practice sessions, emphasizing mindfulness and insight.
Community Service Training: Programs designed to prepare bhikkhunis for active roles in their Training includes social work, counseling, and leadership skills, enabling them to contribute effectively to society.

Contact information:

Address: Dambulla Bhikkhuni Training Centre, Dambulla, Sri Lanka

5.5.3. Newgala Meditation Center Monastery, Sasanaloka Bhikkhuni Asram and Sangamiththa

Dhamma Sri School

Location: Galigamuwa town, Kegalle

Overview:. Parapaduwa Sila Matha Pirivena sits on

acres, perched atop a hill enveloped by dense, vibrant Recognized as the inaugural nunnery, it was founded on September 14, 1958. The Most Venerable Hsing Yun from Fo Guang Shan in Taiwan provided the funding to acquire this land for the nuns.

Elder Bhikkhuni A. A. Bhananda, Ven. Bhikkhuni M.Vijithananda, Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong, Bhikkhuni Tinh Chau, and Nuns

The first abbess who founded the temple passed away

seven years ago (2017), and the temple is currently led by the Elder Bhikkhuni A. A. Bhananda (85 years old) as the second abbess. Presently there are two bhikkhunis and six novice nuns (samaneris) studying.

Every Sunday Sri Sangamiththa Dhamma School has seventy-five students and ten teachers.

Elder Bhikkhuni A. A. Bhananda, Bhikkhuni

M.Vijithananda, Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong, and Nuns

Academic Programs:

Buddhist Textual Studies: In-depth courses on Buddhist scriptures
Monastic Training: Training in monastic practices

and community service

Language Studies: Pali, Sinhala, and English language courses
Meditation Programs: Regular meditation sessions focusing on mindfulness and concentration
General Education: Training for young nuns and girl students

Contact information:

Address: E 11 e Asoka, Galigamuwa town, Kegalle
Phone: 035 222 9769

5.5.4.Sri Sunanda Bhikhuni Aramaya Temple

Location: Alpitiya Galupitamada

Overview: It is less than half an acre in size and was founded on December 27, 1969, by Elder Bhikkhuni

A.A. Bhinanda Theri (85 years old). She is one of the outstanding elder nuns, faithfully ordained according to the tradition of keeping the Ten Precepts (Dasa Sila Mata). After more than forty years of keeping the Ten Precepts, with the consent of the elders, she trained bhikkhunis on precepts and was ordained in 2000 at Fo Guang Shan, Taiwan. There are currently seven bhikkhunis and three novice nuns living there.

From left: Elder Bhikkhuni A.A. Bhinanda, Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong and Ven. Bhikkhuni M.Vijithananda

at the temple’s sign board

Academic and Practice Programs:

Buddhist Textual Studies: In-depth courses on Buddhist scriptures
Monastic Training: Training in monastic practices and community service
Language Studies: Pali, Sinhala, and English language courses.
Meditation Programs: Regular meditation sessions focusing on mindfulness and concentration.

General Education: Training for young nuns and girl students

Contact information:

Address: Alpitiya, Galupitamada

Phone: 035 222 6655

Nuns’ Sangha at Sri Sunanda Bhikhuni Aramaya Temple

5.5.5. Khemaramaya Temple

Location: Indiparape, Mirigama, Galgamuva, Veyangoda

Overview: It was founded by Abbess Bhikkhuni M. Dhammachari Theri andAssistant Nun, T. Dhammadeepani on June 10, 1986.

The two-root pagoda currently has two bhikkhunis,

five novice nuns, nine samaneris, and two little girls preparing to shave their heads. This is the place where Ven. Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda (the abbess of Sakyadhita Training Center, Colombo), lived and studied for twenty-one years. Two elder bhikkhuni leaders are in charge of supervising and teaching at the nunnery school (Pirivana: Bodhi school, from grades one to eleven) next door at Vishakaramaya.

Abbess Bhikkhuni M. Dhammachari (center), Assistant Nun T. Dhammadeepani (left), and Nun Sangha

Practice Programs:

Daily Puja: Morning and evening chanting and meditation sessions
Meditation Retreats: Regular one-day and residential meditation retreats

Dhamma Classes: Teachings on Buddhist doctrines and suttas for lay devotees and resident nuns
Alms offering (Dana): Daily opportunities for devotees to offer meals and other requisites to the Sangha
Sila Observance: Monthly Uposatha (Poya Day) programs for lay practitioners to observe Eight Precepts

Contact information:

Address: Galgamuva city, Veyangoda
Phone: 071 729 9931

Nuns’ Sangha at Khemaramaya Temple

5.5.11. Susilavasa Bhikkhuni Aramaya Temple

Location: Damingamuwa Millaniya

Overview: It spans 1¼ acres and was established on November 3, 1976, by Elder Bhikkhuni Padukke Sumithra Theri.

She was one of twenty nuns who received the bhikkhuni ordination in Bodhgaya, Biha, India, in 1998 with the approval of the international sangha from many countries. There are five bhikkhunis and one sāmaṇeri.

Elder Bhikkhuni Padukke Sumithra Theri (holding a book) and nuns

Contact information:

Address: Mellawagedara
Phone: 0342252590

Celebrating the birthday on October 22 of Sri Lankan bhikkhuni Maha Upajjhaya,

Most Ven. Padukke Sumithra Theri, one of the first three Sri Lankan bhikkhunis to be appointed as a preceptor in the revival. (credit: Facebook.com)

Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong at entrance

to Susilavasa Bhikkhuni Aramaya Temple

5.5.7. Vishakaramaya Temple

Location: Galgamuva, Veyangoda

Overview: It covers one acre and was founded on September 14, 1965, by Bhikkhuni B. Dhamma Nandhani Theri. There are currently three bhikkhunis and six novice nuns (samaneris) studying. This temple trains bhikkhunis and often offers the bhikkhuni ordination ceremony for nuns.

Young sāmaṇeri paying homage to Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi

Huong and Ven. Bhikkhuni M. Vijithananda

Contact information:

Address: Vishakaramaya, Galgamiva, Veyangoda
Phone: 033 228 8875

Nuns’ Sangha at Vishakaramaya Temple

5.5.8. Sakyadhita Training Centre for Nuns in Moratuwa and Panadura

Location: Moratuwa

Overview: The Sakyadhita Training and Meditation Centre south of Colombo offers residential training facilities for newly ordained nuns. Besides ongoing further education in Buddhist teachings, there are English and computer courses, as well as courses in social work, offered by Sri Lanka’s Sankyadana movement.

Academic Programs: The training centre offers a diverse range of programs aimed at promoting interfaith dialogue, social engagement, and a deep understanding of monastic discipline.

Interfaith Dialogue: Programs that encourage understanding and cooperation between different religious traditions. These courses aim to foster mutual respect and peaceful coexistence among various faith communities.
Social Engagement: Training programs focused on social activism and community Bhikkhunis are equipped with the skills to engage in social issues, advocate for social justice, and lead community projects.
Vinaya Studies: Comprehensive courses on the Vinaya Pitaka, covering the rules and regulations for monastic These studies are crucial for maintaining the ethical and disciplinary standards of the Bhikkhuni Sangha.

Contact information:

Address: 50, Alwis Perera Mawatha, Katubedda, Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
Phone: +94 –11 2605489
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
Website: sakyadhita-srilanka.org

Location: Gorakana, Panadura

Overview: The Centre is situated on land that spans 60 perches in width and was generously donated by the landowner, Mr. E. P. Gunasena in Gorakana.

On May 10, 2000, Ms. Ranjani De Silva established it as the Sakyadhita Training Centre for Bhikkhunis and in 2003 Dr. Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda was appointed abbess.

Dr. Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda (right)

and Dr. Bhikkhuni Gioi Huong (left)

Currently there are three bhikkhunis from Vietnam (Bhikkhuni Tịnh Châu whose Ceylon name is Suratanā), Singapore, and indonesia and two novice nuns (samaneris).

Every Sunday there is a Dharma lecture and meditation session. Every month there is a practice session with nearly 500 young people and students attending, and on major holidays, several thousand Buddhists come to attend and practice.

Meditation Training: Regular meditation sessions with guidance on mindfulness practices based on Buddhist teachings.

Community Engagement Programs: Monthly practice sessions for lay practitioners, attracting nearly 500 young people and students, emphasizing the application of Buddhist principles in daily life.

Dharma Lectures and Discourses: Weekly Dharma talks and Q&A sessions aimed at deepening understanding of the Buddha’s teachings.

international Bhikkhuni Training: Hosting and training bhikkhunis and novice nuns from countries such as Vietnam, Singapore, and indonesia, fostering cross-cultural exchange within the Buddhist monastic community.

Contact information:

Address: Mellawagedara
Phone: 038 229 8184
Email: VThis email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

5.5.9. Pradeepaloka Temple

Location: Kendalanda Pallewela City

Overview: It encompasses one acre and was founded on March 17, 1978, by Ven. Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda. In 2022 it was handed over to Bhikkhuni Vinayadharani while Ven. Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda went to Panadura to be the abbess of Sakyadhita Training and Meditation Centre in Gorakana, Panadura.

From left: Bhikkhuni Vinayadharani,

Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong,

and Ven. Bhikkhuni M.Vijithananda

The temple currently has four bhikkhunis and sixteen novice nuns (samaneris) currently studying, along with a school / Pirivena (grades one-eleven). The abbess, Bhikkhuni Vinayadharani, serves as a teacher, supported by several other instructors who teach alongside her.

After graduating from the eleventh grade at the temple, which is equivalent to high school, young nuns can then pursue college or university education.

Nun Sangha at Pradeepaloka Temple

Academic Programs: Grades 1-11

Contact information:

Address: Kendalanda Pallewela City
Phone: 033 205 1453

Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong with young samaneris

paying homage

5.5.10. Uppalawannaramaya Waradala Temple

Location: Mellawagedara

Overview: It is half an acre in size and is presided over by Ven. Bhikkhuni M. Hemananda (the biological sister of Ven. Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda). A female Buddhist named Aljima donated the land. The pagoda currently has a bhikkhuni disciple living with the nun.

From left: Bhikkhuni Tinh Chau, Ven. Bhikkhuni, Ven. Bhikkhuni M. Hemananda (center), Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong, and Ven. Bhikkhuni M. Vijithananda

Contact information:

Address: Mellawagedara
Phone: 077 661 3449

Nuns’ Sangha at Uppalawannaramaya Waradala Temple

5.5.11. Siri Sudhammikaramaya Temple

Location: Nahena, Sri Lanka

Overview: It is on a large 40-perch-wide area, founded on July 23, 1978, by Elder Bhikkhuni U. Sumedha Theri. The pagoda has three bhikkhunis and five novice nuns (samaneris) studying. foreign student nuns from Malaysian and Burmese are living there while they attend university classes in the daytime.

Elder Bhikkhuni U. Sumedha Theri (center), Dr.

Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong, Ven. Bhikkhuni M.Vijithananda

(next right) and Nuns

Daily Chanting and Puja: Morning and evening chanting sessions for mindfulness and devotion

Meditation Training: Regular mindfulness and tranquility meditation sessions for resident nuns and lay practitioners

Dhamma Education: Teaching Buddhist doctrines and sutta studies to novice nuns and visiting students

international Outreach: Special programs and accommodations for foreign student nuns pursuing university education

Poya Day Activities: Observance of Eight Precepts, Dhamma talks, and meditation sessions for devotees and residents

Cultural and Community Engagement: Organizing Dhamma discussions, cultural events, and social welfare activities

Nuns’ Sangha at Sri Sudhammikaramaya Temple

5.5.12. Sri Sucharitha Wardhana Ramaya

Location: Madampe, Sri Lanka

Overview: It is twenty-six perches wide and is managed by several Buddhist teachers, with Elder Bhikkhuni Dapane Dharma Sumanapali Theri leading the efforts. Currently there are two bhikkhunis and five samaneris living and studying there. Ven. Dapane Sumanapali MahaTheri is a prominent figure in Sri Lankan Buddhism, recognized for her role in the revival of the Theravada Bhikkhuni Order.

Academic and Practice Programs:

Daily Chanting and Worship: Morning and evening chanting and Buddha puja sessions
Meditation Programs: Regular meditation sessions emphasizing mindfulness and tranquility
Kindergarten Education: Early childhood education for local children under the temple’s care
Dhamma Education: Buddhist teachings and sutta studies for samaneris and lay practitioners
Community Engagement: Organizing Dhamma talks and cultural programs for the local community
Poya Day Observances: Special Full-Moon Day programs with Eight Precept observance, chanting, and meditation

Contact information:

Address: Madampe, Sri Lanka
Phone number: 0342207274

Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong and Ven. Bhikkhuni M.Vijithananda under the entrance sign of Sri Sucharitha Wardhana Ramaya

5.5.13. Sri Chandrodaya Buddhist Nuns Education

CenteR - Sri Chandrodaya Meheni Pirivena

Sri Chandrodaya is a Buddhist temple and educational center dedicated to training young girls ordained as samaneris (novice nuns). The curriculum includes key Buddhist subjects such as the precepts and the sacred scriptures of Buddhism, the Pali language, and the chanting of Buddhist suttas (the Buddha’s teachings). In addition, the samaneris study secular subjects such as English, Sinhala, history, and mathematics.

Ven. Bhikkhuni abbess Hapandeniya Supeshala of Sri Chandrodaya Buddhist Nuns Education Center also serves as the Assistant Director at the Ministry of Education (Sri Lanka). A bhikkhuni and Buddhism teacher, she pursued studies in Buddhist Religion at the University of Kelaniya and resides in Padukka, Sri Lanka.

Contact information:

Location: Padukka, Sri Lanka
Phone: 94 77 967 3049

srichandrodaya.org
https:// facebook.com/ bhikkhunihal pandeniye.supeshala/
com/sri.chandrodaya.buddhist.nuns. education.center

Bhikkhuni Abbess Hapandeniya Supeshala and her young Nuns in Sri Chandrodaya institute

5.5.14. Dekanduwala Dhamma Training

and Meditation Centre - Sri Lanka’s First Bhikkhuni Training Centre and International Faculty of Buddhist Studies (Btc and Ifbs)

Location: Kananvila, Horana

Bhikkuni Training Centre Dekanduwala:

Dekanduwala Bhikkhuni Dhamma Training and

Meditation Centre is a home for local and foreign nuns. The Dekanduwala Bhikkhuni Training Centre and international Faculty of Buddhist Studies, where women entering a monastic life receive their spiritual training and ordination, is located in Horana, about 30 km from Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Contact information:

Address: Dekanduwala, Kahatapitiya, Kenanwila, Horana, Sri Lanka
Telphone: 034 435 0200
Cellphone of Bhikkhuni Dhammashanthi: 0776072359
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
Website: bhikkhunitrainingcentre.org

Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong (right) at the dining hall of

Dekanduwala Dhamma Training Centre

Overview:

The most Venerable Kirama Wimalajothi Thera is the dynamic founder of the Buddhist Cultural Centre, Colombo (established 1992) and founder of the Dekanduwala Bhikkhuni Training Centre (established 2014). He is a scholar and visionary monk, known globally. His amiable disposition draws hundreds of people wherever he goes. He appointed Bhikkhuni Mayinneluwe Dhammashanthi to serve as director at this institute.

Ven. Wimalajothi Thera explained, “the dispensation of Buddhism and the culture that sprang up allied to it thrives on the existence of fourfold types of people: bhikkhus, bhikkhunis, upasakas (male lay followers) and upasikas

(female lay followers). The core of our ancient glory, intellectual, and economic prosperity, balanced human development and provisional livelihood has always been this utterly sublime and mutual laity-clergy relationship.”

From left: Bhikkhuni Tịnh Châu, Ven. Bhikkhuni M.Vijithananda, Director Mayinneluwe Dhammashanthi, and Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong

The Future Vision and the Fundamental Goals of the Bhikkhuni Training Centre (BTC):

Through education delivered via daily activities rooted in faith and discipline:

A good knowledge of the contents of the Tripitaka

Knowledge of Sinhala, Pali, English, and Tamil
An understanding of our culture through history and sociology
Psychological counseling that would enable one to solve problems pertaining to meditation and family issues
Preparing bhikkhunis to propagate Buddhism by training them in effective communication, leadership skills, and temple management.
Training in activities pertaining to Dhamma schools and social service
Knowledge of comparative religion
Knowledge of the proper chanting of Buddhist stanza (Pirith) and allied rituals and customs pertaining to popular Buddhism.
Knowledge and understanding relevant to fulfilling contemporary social needs, which include a grasp pf astrology and

Education imparted here does not orientate you for a particular kind of vocation, but only for enhancing your life as a nun/abbess.

Examinations for which you may be eligible to sit based on our programs:

Pirivena basic final exam
Oriental primary
Oriental secondary
Oriental pundit
Higher exam pertaining to Buddhist

All day activities are carried out in conformity with an institutional code of discipline and a set timetable.

Enrollment of students: Pirivena Course: Age limit between 16-40 years old. Now it has 70 young nun novices. This marks the inauguration of the Bhikkhuni Training Centre and the newly built three-story monastic building complex.

It is to our credit that this Buddhist institution got registered in 2019 under the Ministry of education whereby obtaining full approval for its unstinted activity. All of us wish that great merit be accrued to those who tirelessly worked for it ,including the Hon. Minister of Education.

Board of Directors of Dekanduwala BTC:

Director of Nedimala Buddhist Cultural Centre: Most Ven. Kirama Wimalajothi Nayaka Thera.

Teacher, Royal College, Horana: Ven. Guyranagama Vineetha Thera.

Executive and Principal: Ven. Bhikkhuni Mainnaluwe Dhammashanthi.

Lecturers: Mr. Keerthi Gunathilake, Dr. Sarath Chandrasekara

Course Coordinator: Mr. Rathna Bandara Coordination and Activity Committee: Ven. Sister

Bandarawela Siri Sunanda, Ven. Sister Henegedara Sucintha, Ven. Sister Gurudeniye Suwinali, Mr. Niroshan Priyasad Ranasinghe.

Let Us Preserve Buddhism for Posterity

Dhamma Training Meditation Center At

Dekanduwala Horana

While every institution worldwide, particularly those involved in religious and social services, supports homes

for orphans, the elderly, and others, the responsibility for bhikkhunis must be shouldered by the state and the Buddhist community.

It was upon brotherly solidarity that the communities of both bhikkhus and bhikkhunis were established and made to flourish in Sri Lanka by the Ancestor Venerable Mahinda Thera and Venerable Bhikkhuni Saṅghamittā Theri from India. At that time in Sri Lanka, no bhikkhu or anyone else was known to have resisted the formation of the bhikkhuni community, allowing Buddhism to thrive in both India and Sri Lanka.

Nevertheless, owing to Brahmanist, Jainist, and anti- feminist ideologies, the bhikkhunis became extinct both in Sri Lanka and India. Later, bhikkhus also disappeared, and numerous misunderstood concepts became embedded in treatises concerning the discipline of bhikkhunis.

The golden age of Buddhism in both India and Sri Lanka emerged during the period when bhikkhunis thrived, as evidenced by archaeological remains. It is clear that countries and region where bhikkhunis prospered, such as Taiwan, Korea, China, Vietnam and Japan, experienced significant advancements, both economically and in other aspects.

The Buddha recognized that women could attain Nirvana without ordination. Nevertheless, he established the Bhikkhuni Sasana with ordination rules to ensure the longevity of the Sasana and to enable the fourfold community, consisting of the previously mentioned categories, to collaborate harmoniously in promoting Buddhism.

Robes, bowls, moral injunctions, property rights and alms are not relevant to dasa sila mathas. They are not considered a part of the Buddha Sasana (the Buddha’s teachings).

A strong bhikkhuni community can immensely contribute and augment the economic and spiritual development of Sri Lanka. The non-acceptance of the bhikkhunis in a Theravadan country like Sri Lanka is highly unjustified in view of the fact that more than half the population are women.

Many people wonder why bhikkhunis were provided with IDs until 2024, only for the practice to abruptly cease. It may reflect entrenched gender dynamics in monastic life, where male clergy reluctance—possibly rooted in tradition rather than explicit chauvinism, hypocrisy, or jealousy—and continues to hinder full integration. The lack of IDs post-2024 leaves bhikkhunis in a precarious position, limiting their access to rights and services tied to official recognition, echoing historical struggles for equality.

Although those who resisted the approval of bhikkhunis held some social standing, they were not widely acknowledged across the country. Moreover, they who have resisted recognizing the Bhikkhuni Order have not contributed, nor are they contributing, anything significant to the advancement of the Sasana, focusing instead solely on their own interests.

Currently, the fourfold community finds itself in a dilemma, caught between two difficult choices, due to the lack of a unified authority or central headquarters to oversee and coordinate the efforts of the thirty-five bhikkhuni sects in Sri Lanka.

Among celebrities who sought the re-establishment of the bhikkhuni Sasana are Anagarika Dharmapala, Prof. Gunapala Malalesekera, Ven. Dr. Kirinde Dhammananda Thera, Ven. Dr. Walpola Rahula Thera, Ven. Dr. Mapalagama Vipulasara Thera, and Ven. Thalalle Dhammaloka Thera. Presently, a significant and pioneering part in re-establishing the Bhikkhuni Sasana is being carried out by Ven. Dr. Inamaluve Sumangala Thera, Ven. Prof. Kaburugamuwe Vajira Thera, Ven. Bodagama Chandima Thera, Prof. Galmangoda, Prof. Chandra Wickramage and Prof. Ariyapala Perera.

The meditation hall of Dekanduwala Dhamma Training Centre

With immense love for Sasana and with humble kindness we request you to re-issue identity cards for

Venerable Bhikkhunis, have monasteries wherein bhikkhunis reside given registration, and build ten pirivenas to educate young novice bhikkhunis.

The Dekanduwala Dhamma Training and Meditation Centre was inaugurated by us to train people in the art of meditation, the very core of the philosophy of the Tathagata, the Buddha.

Welcome to the Community of Bhikkhunis

The community of bhikkhunis was sanctioned and established by the Buddha during his lifetime and was inaugurated with the ordination of Maha Prajapati Gotami who was inaugurated in Sri Lanka in the third century B.C. by the Bhikkhuni Saṅghamittā. During the sixth century A.D., Bhikkhuni Devasara took bhikkhuni ordination to China. This is strongly supported by the research of Prof. Hema Gunatilleke. The Bhikkhuni Sasana (the Buddha’s teachings) was not similarly established in countries like Burma and Thailand where Southern Buddhism remains dominant.

It is widely recognized that in accordance with the disciplinary guidelines set by the Buddha, bhikkhuni ordination continues to be conducted with the participation of both bhikkhus and bhikkhunis in nations and region such as Korea, Taiwan, the United States, and the UK. In relation to this, Bhikkhuni Dr. Kusuna has published an experimental research work titled Bhikkhuni Vinaya.

In recent times, we have adopted only the tradition of the saffron robe. This was not the Mahayana form of Buddhism. We did not take on the Mahayana attire, its metaphysical concepts, or its language. Instead, we

perform our ceremonial rituals in accordance with the guidelines outlined in the Pali Tripitaka.

The Imperative of Establishing the Bhikkhuni Community

Apart from the fourfold assembly—Bhikkhus, Bhikkhunis, Upasakas, and Upasikas—no one else exists to spread Buddhist teachings throughout the world.

According to Ven. Kirinde Dhammananda and certain others’ interpretation of the Buddha Sasana, the Sasana today is in jeopardy, akin to a table balanced precariously on three legs. The survival of Buddhism depends on the presence of these four essential groups of people.

Young Samaneris paying homage to the Elder Bhikkhunis

***

Contributions of Bhikkhunis to the Buddhist Community and Society

egard to the impact of bhikkhuni education on local and international Buddhist communities, the resurgence of bhikkhuni education in Sri Lanka has had profound impacts on both local and international Buddhist communities. Locally, these education centers have empowered women to pursue monastic life, equipping them with the knowledge and skills necessary to engage in religious, educational, and social activities. Bhikkhunis are now actively involved in teaching, community service, and social welfare programs, contributing significantly to the spread of Buddhist teachings and the betterment of

society.

Internationally, Sri Lankan bhikkhunis have become ambassadors of Theravada Buddhism, participating in global conferences, interfaith dialogues, and scholarly activities. They bring a unique perspective to the international Buddhist community, highlighting the importance of gender equality in monastic practices. The success of Bhikkhuni education in Sri Lanka has inspired similar movements in other Theravada countries such as Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, etc., fostering a global network of empowered Buddhist nuns.

Here are a few exemplary case studies:

6.1.

Venerable Dr. Bhikkhuni Kusuma

Venerable Dr. Bhikkhuni Kusuma

Bhikkhuni Kusuma (1930-2021) was a pioneering figure in the revival of the Theravada Bhikkhuni Sangha in Sri Lanka, widely recognized as the first Sri Lankan woman in modern times to receive full ordination as a bhikkhuni. Her life and work represent a significant milestone in the restoration of the order of fully ordained Buddhist nuns, which had been absent from Sri Lanka for nearly a millennium. Below is an overview of her contributions and legacy, contextualized within Sri Lanka as of March 19, 2025.

Kusuma’s spiritual journey deepened in the 1980s when she became a dasa sila mata (ten-precept nun), a common role for women in Sri Lanka at the time, as the Bhikkhuni Sangha had vanished around the eleventh century CE due to historical disruptions like the Chola invasions. However, she sought full ordination, inspired by the historical precedent set by Saṅghamittā Theri and motivated by the survival of the Theravada bhikkhuni lineage in Mahayana countries and region like China, Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and Taiwan, and so on.

in 1996, at the age of 66, Kusuma made history by becoming the first Sri Lankan woman in modern times to receive full bhikkhuni ordination. This took place in Sarnath, India, during an international ordination ceremony organized by the Korean Jogye Order, with participation from Theravada monks from Sri Lanka and Mahayana nuns who traced their lineage back to the Theravada tradition. She was ordained alongside nine other Sri Lankan women, marking a pivotal moment in the revival of the Bhikkhuni Sangha. The event was facilitated by supportive Sri Lankan monks such as Ven. Inamaluwe Sumangala Thera, despite resistance from conservative factions who argued that the lineage could not be authentically restored.

Contributions to the Bhikkhuni Sangha:

After her ordination, Bhikkhuni Kusuma returned to Sri Lanka and dedicated her life to re-establishing and strengthening the Bhikkhuni Order. She played a key role in the first bhikkhuni ordination on Sri Lankan soil in 1998 at the Golden Temple in Dambulla, where she served as a preceptor (upajjhaya) for subsequent ordinations. This event solidified the revival, enabling local women to join the order without traveling abroad.

Kusuma founded the Ayya Khema international Meditation Centre in Horana, Sri Lanka, named after the renowned German-born Theravada nun, Ayya Khema. The center became a hub for training bhikkhunis and samaneris (novices), offering meditation, Dhamma education, and community outreach. She emphasized rigorous adherence to the Vinaya while adapting monastic life to modern needs, teaching nuns to engage with society through education and social service.

As a scholar, she authored several works, including translations and commentaries on Buddhist texts, making the Dhamma accessible to both monastics and laypeople. Her scientific background informed her analytical approach to Buddhist philosophy, earning her respect as a teacher and speaker in Sri Lanka and internationally.

Challenges and Legacy:

Bhikkhuni Kusuma faced significant opposition from conservative elements within the Sri Lankan Sangha, who questioned the legitimacy of her ordination due to the involvement of Mahayana nuns and the long break in the Theravada bhikkhuni lineage. Despite this, she remained steadfast, advocating for gender equity in monastic life and arguing that the Buddha’s original intent was to include women fully in the Sangha. Her efforts helped shift attitudes, paving the way for hundreds of women to become bhikkhunis in Sri Lanka by the early twenty-first century.

She passed away on August 27, 2021, at the age of ninety, leaving behind a lasting legacy. As of March 19,

2025, her influence endures through the growing Bhikkhuni Sangha, now numbering in the hundreds, with nuns like Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda continuing her work at centers like Sakyadhita. The Ayya Khema Meditation Centre remains active, and her writings continue to inspire both monastics and scholars.

From left: Bhiksuni T.N. Giới Hương, Ven. Bhikkhuni Kusuma, Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo, Taiwanese Nun, Bhikkhuni P. Sudharshana, and Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda at Sakyadhita Conference in Taiwain 2002

Impact in Contemporary Sri Lanka:

Bhikkhuni Kusuma’s pioneering ordination broke barriers, enabling Sri Lankan women to reclaim their place in the Theravada tradition. Her emphasis on education and meditation has shaped a generation of bhikkhunis who now contribute to society through teaching, counseling, and social welfare, much like their bhikkhu counterparts.

Her life exemplifies resilience, blending intellectual rigor with spiritual devotion, and her legacy underscores the evolving role of women in Sri Lankan Buddhism today.

Her scholarly work is equally impressive, with numerous publications on Buddhist philosophy and the Vinaya, the monastic code of discipline, marking her as a respected teacher and thinker within the Buddhist community. Through her unwavering dedication, she has inspired countless women to pursue the monastic life, leaving a lasting legacy that continues to shape the path for female practitioners.

6.2. Venerable Dr. Bhikkhuni Dhammananda

Venerable Dr. Bhikkhuni Dhammananda

Originally a professor of Buddhist studies, Venerable Dhammananda chose to ordain as a bhikkhuni and has since become a prominent figure in promoting bhikkhuni

ordination and education. She has been actively involved in teaching, writing, and advocating for women’s rights within the Buddhist community.

Dhammananda Bhikkhuni, born Chatsumarn Kabilsingh or Chatsumarn Kabilsingh Shatsena, is a Thai bhikkhuni. On February 28, 2003, Kabilsingh received full monastic ordination as a bhikkhuni of the Theravada tradition in Sri Lanka.

6.3. Venerable Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda

Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda

Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda serves as the chief abbess of the Sakyadhita Training and Meditation

Centre in Sri Lanka. A leading Theravada Buddhist nun (bhikkhuni) in the country, she is widely recognized for her efforts in revitalizing the Bhikkhuni Sangha (Order of Nuns) not only in Sri Lanka but also globally.

Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda earned a BA and an MA in Buddhist Studies from the Buddhist and Pali University and the University of Kelaniya, respectively. She currently serves as abbess of the Sakyadhita Training and Meditation Centre in Panadura, Sri Lanka, a position she has honorably held since 2003. In her role as abbess, she teaches Dhamma and meditation, provides counseling to pregnant women, operates a Sunday Dhamma school, coordinates monthly spiritual activities and annual Buddhist holidays, and offers homework assistance to underserved youth. Beyond the center, she delivers Dhamma talks and has engaged in interfaith dialogue initiatives both in Sri Lanka and abroad, including in Taiwan.

Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda also engages in social work, providing support to impoverished families, distributing emergency disaster relief supplies, and supplying rural students with school materials, with assistance from Fo Guang Shan Monastery in Taiwan. Since 2008, she has been ordaining women and takes great satisfaction in working to support the Theravada Bhikkhuni Sangha. to enhance and structure bhikkhuni training, she traveled to Taiwan in 2005, spending four months studying at Fo Guang Shan Monastery. In recognition of her dedicated and compassionate efforts, she was honored with “the MA in Glorious Buddhist Doctrine and the Victorious Banner for Buddhist Dispensation,” becoming the first recipient of this prestigious award. Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda stands as an inspiring model of how a bhikkhuni can contribute meaningfully to society.

From right: Bhikkhuni Tinh Chau, Ven. Bhikkhuni Gioi Huong (second right), Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda, and nuns at Sakyadhita Training and Meditation Centre, Sri Lanka, July 2023

6.4. Venerable Bhikkhuni Hapandeniya Supeshala Maha Theri

Venerable Bhikkhuni Hapandeniya Supeshala Maha Theri serves as Abbess of Sri Chandrodaya Buddhist Nuns’ Education Center and as Assistant Director at the Ministry of Education in Sri Lanka. Previously a bhikkhuni at a Buddhist teaching institution, she pursued studies in Buddhist religion at the University of Kelaniya and currently resides in Padukka, Sri Lanka.

Venerable Bhikkhuni Hapandeniya Supeshala

Known for her work in community service, Venerable Bhikkhuni Hapandeniya Supeshala has initiated several social welfare programs, including educational projects for underprivileged children and health camps in rural areas. Her work exemplifies the compassionate action central to Buddhist teachings.

6.5. Venerable Bhikkhuni Peliyagoda Sudarshana

Born in 1968, Venerable Bhikkhuni Peliyagoda Sudarshana has emerged as a transformative figure in Theravada Buddhism, particularly through her dedication to reviving and advancing the Bhikkhuni Order. Her

spiritual journey began in 1985 when she ordained as a nun, and in 1997, she took a historic step by becoming one of the first bhikkhunis ordained in Sri Lanka. This milestone signaled a turning point in the resurgence of the Bhikkhuni Sangha, the community of fully ordained Buddhist nuns.

Before embracing monastic life fully, Venerable Sudarshana built a strong academic foundation. She studied at Peradeniya University and Colombo University, where she trained as a high school teacher. Her passion for learning didn’t stop there—she later earned a Master of Arts from the Buddhist and Pali University and a Master of Education from Colombo University. These achievements reflect her unique blend of scholarly rigor and spiritual devotion, qualities that would shape her present and future contributions.

Venerable Sudarshana’s impact truly shines through her efforts to strengthen the global bhikkhuni community. She organized three landmark international higher ordination ceremonies for bhikkhunis: one in Taiwan in 2001, followed by two in Sri Lanka in 2002 and 2003. These events not only empowered women in Buddhism but also fostered connections across borders. In 2001, she further enriched Buddhist scholarship by authoring Bhikkhuni Patimokkha and Vinaya Karma, works that remain a valuable resource for practitioners and scholars alike.

Venerable Bhikkhuni P. Sudarshana and Sangha at Samadhi Meditation Center, Florida, USA

Her influence extends well beyond Sri Lanka. Venerable Sudarshana has traveled extensively, spending time in Taiwan, Korea, Thailand, India, Cambodia, New Zealand, and the USA. These journeys have allowed her to share her wisdom and build bridges within the international Buddhist community. Since 2003, she has made her home in the United States, where she serves as the Abbess of the Samadhi Meditation Center³⁴ in Florida, USA. From this base, she continues to guide and inspire practitioners.

Numerous esteemed bhikkhunis have held prominent positions, such as bhikkhuni pavattini-upajjhaya (preceptors) and bhikkhuni kammavacacarini (officiant teachers, examiners, and instructors), as well as educators in Dhamma-Vinaya and English, and so on. These Elderly Bhikkhunis guide female lay Buddhists, training them as novices with the dasa silas and later ordaining them as full silas (bhikkhuni precepts), with the goal of supporting young Buddhist women in becoming fully realized and capable bhikkhunis within the dual Sangha, as well as competent members of the Theravada Bhikkhuni Sangha. These bhikkhunis have laid a strong foundation in education, established a global presence, created a lasting legacy, and advanced the Bhikkhuni Order. Their influence remains vital in modern Sri Lankan society, where they actively contribute through teaching meditation, providing community service, and promoting education.

Through the tireless works, Sri Lankan bhikkhunis have elevated the recognition and status of women in Buddhism, both in Sri Lanka and around the world. Their life story—from the dedicated educators to the trailblazing monastic leaders—stands as a testament to their unwavering commitment to faith, education, and equality within the Buddhist tradition.

Samadhi Meditation Center

5908 67th Ave, Pinellas Park, Florida USA Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. Phone: 727 744 4377

Conclusion

he development of bhikkhus (monks) and bhikkhunis (nuns) in Sri Lanka reflects a rich

history rooted in the introduction of Buddhism to the island, its evolution through centuries of prosperity and decline, and its adaptation to modern challenges. Below is an overview of this development, tracing key milestones and transformations in the Sangha (monastic community, bhikkhus and bhikkhunis) from ancient times to the present day, as of March 19, 2025.

7.1 Early Development (Third Century BCE)

Buddhism arrived in Sri Lanka in the third century BCE during the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa, introduced by Mahinda Thera, son of Emperor Ashoka. Mahinda established the Bhikkhu Sangha by ordaining Sri Lankan men, starting with the king’s nephew, Maha Arittha. This marked the beginning of the Theravada Buddhist tradition on the island, with the Mahavihara monastery in Anuradhapura becoming a center of monastic life and learning.

Shortly after, Mahinda’s sister, Saṅghamittā Theri, arrived with a sapling of the Bodhi Tree and introduced the Bhikkhuni Sangha by ordaining Queen Anula and other women. This established Sri Lanka as one of the earliest regions to have a fully ordained order of nuns, adhering to the Vinaya (monastic rules). The Bhikkhu and Bhikkhuni Sanghas flourished under royal patronage, supported by a network of monasteries like Jetavana and Abhayagiri, alongside the Mahavihara.

7.2. Golden Age and institutional Growth (Third Century BCE-Eleventh Century CE)

For over a millennium, the Sangha thrived as a cornerstone of Sri Lankan society. Bhikkhus preserved Buddhist teachings through oral tradition, later committing them to writing in the first century BCE at Alu Vihara, producing the Pali Canon in its earliest written form. Monastic education developed, with monks becoming scholars, meditators, and advisors to kings. Major monasteries served as intellectual hubs, fostering the spread of Theravada Buddhism to Southeast Asia.

The Bhikkhuni Sangha also prospered during this period, with nuns actively participating in spiritual and communal life. Historical records, such as the Dipavamsa (compiled by nuns in the fourth century CE), highlight their contributions to Buddhist literature and practice. Royal support ensured the construction of nunneries, such as those in Anuradhapura, and the Bhikkhuni Order maintained a strong presence alongside the bhikkhus.

7.3. Decline of the Bhikkhuni Sangha (Eleventh Century CE)

The Bhikkhuni Sangha faced a significant setback around the eleventh century CE, likely due to the Chola invasions from South India, which disrupted monastic institutions and led to the decline of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. The requirement of a quorum of fully ordained bhikkhunis for ordination could no longer be met, causing the order to disappear from the island. While the Bhikkhu Sangha survived, supported by periodic reordinations from Burma and Thailand, the bhikkhuni lineage was lost locally, reducing women to lay roles or the status of dasa sila matas (ten-precept nuns) who were not fully ordained.

7.4. Revival and Challenges (Twelfth Century-Nineteenth Century)

The Bhikkhu Sangha experienced cycles of decline and revival, notably under kings like Parakramabahu I (twelfth century), who unified the sangha and strengthened monastic discipline. However, colonial rule (Portuguese, Dutch, and British, sixteenth-twentieth centuries) brought further challenges. Christian missionary activities and land confiscations weakened monastic institutions, though bhikkhus adapted by engaging in social reform and education, with figures like Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala founding institutions like Vidyodaya Pirivena in the nineteenth century.

The absence of the Bhikkhuni Sangha persisted during this period, though dasa sila matas continued to practice and serve in limited capacities, often managing temples and teaching laypeople. Efforts to revive the Bhikkhuni Order were stymied by conservative factions within the sangha, who questioned its legitimacy without a direct Theravada lineage.

7.5. Modern Revival of the Bhikkhuni Sangha (Twentieth Century-Present)

The twentieth century marked a turning point for both bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. The Bhikkhu Sangha regained strength through the Buddhist revival movement, supported by figures like Anagarika Dharmapala and the establishment of modern monastic universities, such as the Buddhist and Pali University of Sri Lanka. Bhikkhus expanded their roles, engaging in education, social service, and nationalist movements.

The Bhikkhuni Sangha saw a historic revival starting in the late twentieth century. In 1996, Sri Lankan women were ordained as bhikkhunis in Sarnath, India, with assistance from Mahayana nuns from Korea and Taiwan, as the Theravada bhikkhuni lineage had survived in East Asia. The first ordinations in Sri Lanka followed in 1998 at Dambulla, led by bhikkhus supportive of the revival, despite opposition from conservative monks citing Vinaya technicalities. Key figures like Bhikkhuni Kusuma (the first modern Sri Lankan bhikkhuni) and Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda and others have since championed this movement, establishing training centers like Sakyadhita in Panadura.

7.6. Contemporary Development (Twenty-first Century, March 19, 2025)

The history of these monastic orders is characterized by periods of flourish and decline, influenced by socio- political changes from ancient to colonial times. The resilience of the Bhikkhuni Sangha is particularly noteworthy, having recovered from near extinction. The late twentieth century revival efforts, including the re- establishment of bhikkhuni ordination, marked a critical turning point, reviving the monastic path for women and reinvigorating educational and spiritual practices rooted in Theravada tradition.

Contemporary monastic education has evolved significantly, with institutions like the Buddhist and Pali University of Homagama and the Nagananda international institute for Buddhist Studies and other institutes providing advanced scholastic and spiritual training. These centers have contributed to the Sangha’s intellectual growth and prepared them to engage with modern societal challenges. The re-established Bhikkhuni Sangha has profoundly impacted Sri Lankan society, expanding beyond traditional monastic roles to engage in community service, education, and international outreach. This exemplifies the dynamic nature of Buddhist monasticism, adapting traditional practices to meet modern needs. Ongoing challenges include maintaining the quality of monastic education, addressing gender disparities, and ensuring the relevance of monastic life in a modernizing world. Innovative approaches that respect tradition while embracing progressive change are necessary to address these issues.

As of March 19, 2025, the Bhikkhu Sangha remains a dominant force in Sri Lankan Buddhism, with thousands of monks living in rural and urban monasteries. They continue traditional roles—meditation, chanting, and teaching—while also addressing modern issues through media, environmental activism, and education. Institutions like the Gangaramaya Temple and modern pirivenas (monastic schools) blend tradition with contemporary needs.

The Bhikkhuni Sangha, though smaller, is growing steadily, with hundreds of fully ordainednuns and thousands of novices (samaneris) and dasa sila matas. Bhikkhunis have embraced expanded responsibilities, including community service (e.g., aiding poor families, disaster relief), education (e.g., Sunday Dhamma schools), and interfaith dialogue. Leaders like Venerable Dr. Bhikkhuni Kusuma, Venerable Dr. Bhikkhuni Dhammananda, Venerable Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda, Venerable Bhikkhuni Hapandeniya Supeshala Maha Theri, Venerable Bhikkhuni Peliyagoda Sudarshana, Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda, and other bhikkhunis stand out as remarkable figures in Buddhist history. As the key pioneers in reviving the Bhikkhuni Sangha in Sri Lanka, they played a crucial role in re-establishing full ordination for women, breathing new life into a tradition that had faded over time. They exemplify the evolution, integrating monastic life with social outreach. However, challenges persist, including resistance to their legitimacy from some bhikkhus and societal debates over gender equity.

The evolution and current state of the Bhikkhu and Bhikkhuni Sanghas in Sri Lanka reveal a complex interplay of religious devotion, societal impact, and cultural preservation spanning millennia. This examination highlights key insights and projects future trajectories within global Buddhism.

With such strong local and international support, and the great faith and dedication of the new Sri Lankan bhikkhunis themselves, the Theravada Bhikkhuni Sangha is now firmly established in Sri Lanka. The now- complete fourfold sangha of the Buddha— bhikkhus, bhikkhunis, upasakas, and upasikas—in Sri Lanka become better educated, uplifted, and empowered in the course of the growing global Buddhism.

Venerable Giới Hương’s delegation offers Books and money to young monks at Sri Vidyasekhara Pirivena Pirivena, Koombiyangoda Maha Vihara, July 13, 2023

***

The Origin of the Community

Wijayaratna, M. (Ed.)

ven though the Community of Nuns was established sometime after the beginning of the Community of Monks, the Buddha taught the Doctrine to both men and women from the very beginning of his teaching career, and numerous female disciples such as Visākhā Migāra-Mātā, Bandula-Mallikā, Khujuttarā, Velukantakī Nanda-Mātā, etc. supported his religious movement as very dedicated lay disciples. One might ask, therefore, why the Buddha waited so long before agreeing to set up a monastic order for women. A long anecdote in the Vinaya and the Aṅguttara-nikāya gives the background. The following is

a brief account of the incident:

At one time the Buddha was in Kapilavatthu³⁵ and his stepmother, Mahā-Pajāpati Gotamī, asked permission to go forth into the homeless

The town of the Buddha’s birth, the main city of the Sakya life.³⁶ the Buddha refused, saying, “No, Gotamī, do not wish for women to enter homeless life in this Doctrine and Discipline that has been taught by the Tathāgata.” Mahā-Pajāpati Gotamī made the same request on two other occasions, but the Buddha gave a negative answer each time, and Mahā-Pajāpati Gotamī was very disappointed. On a later occasion, when the Buddha was residing in Vesālī,³⁷ Mahā-Pajāpati Gotamī, Rāhula-Mātā, and a large group of Sākyan ladies cut their hair, dressed themselves in ascetic clothes and went as a group to Vesālī, traveling the long distance (more than three hundred kilometers) on foot to show their profound determination. At the end of their journey, they gathered together weeping outside the gate of the place where the Buddha was residing. Seeing Mahā-Pajāpati Gotamī and her group, Āyasmanta Ānanda made a new request on their behalf. This time, the Buddha gave permission to Mahā-Pajāpati Gotamī to enter the homeless life “in this Doctrine and Discipline” on condition that she would accept the Eight Great Conditions.³⁸

We may ask why the Buddha hesitated so much

See S II 18-19. According to the Commentaries, this incident took place when the Buddha went to the Sakya country to reconcile two groups, the Sakyans and They were quarreling over the use of the water of the river Rohiṇi (see S-a 672; Dhp-a III, 254-56; J V 412). This was after the death of the Buddha’s father, Suddhodana, chief of the Sakyans.
the capital of the country of the
Vinaya, II, 253-54; A IV 272-77; see also Th-a 141 and Vinaya, IV,

when it came to authorizing the foundation of a religious community for women, for he was full of compassion for everyone. to understand his “hesitation,” let us come back to the initial anecdote. We can see here the Buddha taking two contradictory positions. First of all, he refuses to give permission to his stepmother to enter homeless life, but later he even accepts to set up a monastic community for women.

First of all, we must note that, strictly speaking, Mahā- Pajāpati Gotamī did not request that a Community of Nuns (bhikkhunī sangha) be established. She only asked that she and her group be allowed to enter homeless life in “this Doctrine and this Discipline.” We can see that two possibilities were open to the Buddha. He could allow these women to enter the Community of Monks, which had already been established, or he could set up a community open only to women—a community that would exist alongside the Community of Monks. The first possibility, however, was not feasible. Allowing men and women to live in such close proximity would have undermined the very principle of renunciation. The second possibility was no doubt the best solution, but when the first requests were made, conditions were not yet favorable for establishing a Community of Nuns. A certain amount of time had passed, no doubt, between the first request made by Mahā-Pajāpati Gotamī and her visit to Vesālī to meet the Buddha. So when she came to Vesālī, the Buddha chose the second solution and presented a number of pre-conditions in order to draw a demarcation line between the Community of Monks and the Community of Nuns. Thus, in agreeing to found a Community of Nuns, the Buddha offered Mahā-Pajāpati Gotamī more than she had asked for.

in order to understand why the Buddha could not make this offer when Mahā-Pajāpati Gotamī first asked to go forth, we must examine the Buddha’s attitudes to social problems and especially his kind and sensitive character. The canonical texts show that the Buddha sometimes changed his mind depending on what people requested, just as he would adapt his discourse to the aptitude of those listening to him. At times he would accept certain requests, if they were repeated several times. One day, for example, when the Buddha was at Rājagaha, he happened to meet a naked ascetic named Kassapa as he was walking in the town. Kassapa said to the Buddha, “If the honourable Gotama would permit me, if he would like to give me an opportunity to hear his answer, I would like to question him about a certain matter.” the Buddha answered, “This is not the moment to ask questions, O Kassapa, we are among houses.”³⁹ The naked ascetic repeated his request and the Buddha refused a second time. Then the naked ascetic said, “It is not an important matter we wish to ask, O honourable Gotama.” then the Buddha said, “You may ask whatever you like, O Kassapa.” and they had an important discussion.⁴⁰ This episode shows how responsive the Buddha was to someone who was insistent with a request. The canonical texts report many similar incidents.⁴¹ It is probable that for the Buddha, it was necessary for the

the expression “we are among houses” (antaraghare) means “we are in a village or in a town to receive food.”
Samyutta Nikaya, II, 18-19/SN 12:17; Udana, pp. 6-9/Ud 1.10.
Even in the Mahā-Parinibbāna-sutta, concerning the possibility of postponing his parinibbāna, the Buddha said to Āyasmanta Ānanda, “If you had insisted, the Tathāgata might have rejected the appeal even the second time, but the third time he would have accepted it”: Sace tvam person making the request to persevere when it was an important matter.⁴² “Tenacious adherence to a good cause” is classified in the Doctrine as belonging to the category of good effort (sammā vāyāma), which the Buddha praised from the very beginning of his first sermon. Similarly, we can see in the story of the founding of the Community of Nuns that the Buddha took into account Mahā-Pajāpati Gotamī’s and Venerable Ānanda’s insistence. The other important point to be considered in this connection is the manner in which the Buddha made decisions. The texts in the Vinaya-piṭaka show that the Buddha only laid down a given rule when it was evident that it would be of use to others, when the occasion arose and when it proved to be thoroughly needed. In the beginning, for example, when the chief disciple Sāriputta requested that he establish an explicit code of discipline for the Community of Monks, the Buddha did not agree to provide a set of rules drawn up in the abstract. The Buddha only formulated rules when the need arose because, he said, the Community’s situation changed with time (rattanna-mahatta), due to an abundance of material goods accruing to the Community (labhagga-mahatta), due to the dispersal of its members (vepulla-mahatta) and due to an increase in various types of knowledge on the part of its members (bahusacca-

Ānanda Tathāgatam yāceyyāsi, dve vā te vā ca Tathāgato paṭikkhipeyya, atha tatiyakaṃ adhivāseyya—D II 116-18.

According to tradition, the Buddha began to teach the Doctrine only after Brahmā Sahampati requested him to do so (Vinaya, I, 6-7; Majjhima Nikāya (Trung Bộ), I, 168; Tương Ưng Bộ Kinh (Saṃyutta Nikāya), I, 137-38). Symbolically, a story such as this shows that others must request to hear the Doctrine and that it is only afterwards that the Buddha He does not impose his Doctrine and Discipline but only teaches after being requested to do so!

mahatta), and so on.⁴³

The approach of “waiting for the right moment” is found throughout the Vinaya as the Buddha established the rules of the discipline, and, more often, as he gave modifications and amendments to the rules. This, at any rate, is the impression that every page of the Vinaya texts gives. Thus, in the case of the request made by the women who wanted to enter the religious life, it seems that the Buddha was in no hurry to found a Community of Nuns as part of his new movement for those who were giving up the household life. He probably foresaw the difficulties that would arise if a Community of Nuns were set up too soon. In other words, the Buddha could not establish a Community of Nuns before there were enough donors to support it as a monastic institution. for him, a monastic community should not be far removed from the lay community; it should be an institution necessarily supported and protected by lay people. The Community of Monks had already been set up according to those principles. The question is: would the Community of Nuns have received wide support from the lay community if it had been established at the same time as the Community of Monks? The answer is no.

We must remember that when a number of young men left their families to enter the Buddhist monastic order at the time it was started, the followers of the Brahmins in Rājagaha and the Brahmins themselves were angry, saying, “This ascetic Gotama is on the path that deprives us of children; this ascetic Gotama is on the path that destroys

See Vinaya, I, p 43.

families.”⁴⁴ So we see that in the beginning, the Buddha and his first male disciples encountered difficulties when faced with the traditional beliefs of a society dominated by Brahmins. Under such conditions, we cannot imagine that lay people would have tolerated the sight of their women (even unmarried women) leaving their families. Indeed, Brahmin traditions confined women to the home. Brahmins would not have wanted the religious leader Gotama to destroy their “homes”!

Moreover, there were several obstacles to the Buddha’s accepting the request to found a community for nuns. for one thing, the Buddha’s Teachings were not yet widespread; for another, there were not many people to support those who had gone forth in this new “religion.” Finally, even the Community of Monks was not yet organized according to precise rules of discipline. These conditions meant that the time was not yet ripe to establish a Community of Nuns. There were probably some male disciples, especially in that early period, who thought that a Community of Nuns would be unnecessary, or even detrimental, at least for the time being.

Very probably, there was also the question of how to organize such a community for women along the same lines as the monks’ community. In the early days, there were relatively few disciples of the Buddha, and they traveled from one district to another, from one country to another, alone or in groups, teaching the Doctrine.⁴⁵ they wore monastic clothes made from rags⁴⁶ and went from

See Vinaya, II,

Vinaya, I, 143 BML, pp.32-34.

house to house each day on their alms-rounds begging for food. As there were still no monastic buildings everywhere, they had to spend the night in public gardens, in a potter’s workshop,⁴⁷ etc. It may be that the Buddha thought that women, especially those who came from well- to-do families, would not be able to follow such a difficult way of life, and that there might even be scandals if those women only appropriate for men. Thus, it seems that, just as for the question of the monk’s monastic clothes,⁴⁸ the Buddha waited until a certain number of material problems

Places such as the potter’s workshop (kumbakāra sālā) were open for renouncers who were coming into the town even late at night (cf. Majjhima Nikāya, III, p 237).
For the first twenty years of the existence of the Community of Monks, Buddhist monks only wore religious robes (pamsukūla cīvara) made of rags (Vinayay, I, 280). Then, following a suggestion made by a well-known physician, Jīvaka Komārabhacca, the Buddha allowed the monks to accept robe-material and robes given by lay people. The Buddha himself started the practice by accepting an expensive piece of cloth from the It is clear that the Buddha and his followers waited until donors invited them to wear monastic robes made from material given by lay disciples. It is important to understand why the Buddha and his disciples did not wear robes made of new cloth in the beginning. The reason is obvious: In the society of the Buddha’s day, members of other ascetic communities were not in the habit of accepting robes or robe- material given by lay people, and what is more, many lay people greatly admired the practice of going naked as followed by some ascetics. This meant that if the Buddha and his disciples had started in the beginning to look for and accept clothes and monastic robes made from new cloth, the question of what they wore would have become an obstacle to their being accepted by lay people. After twenty years, a sufficient number of lay disciples knew that wearing robes made of new material would not be an obstacle to a monk’s mental development. Finally, the lay disciples themselves requested that the Buddha and his disciples wear the robes that they gave, or robes made from new material given by them. Thus, for the Buddha, the time had come to begin accepting robe-material or new robes (see BML, pp.33-35).

were resolved before giving his consent to the founding of the Community of Nuns so that women would be able to follow the monastic life effectively.

The Buddha knew no doubt that there would be other difficulties for women in a monastic institution—especially their security. Even after the Community of Nuns was established, the security of its members was always a serious problem, especially in regions where there were few Buddhists. On several occasions, young nuns on their own were raped in deserted byways, in forests, and even on boats.⁴⁹ This is why, even later, after their community was well-established, the nuns were restricted to living only in areas where Buddhism was well established. It is therefore only to be expected that the Buddha would wait until there were a number of such safe areas before founding the Community of Nuns.⁵⁰

In the story about the origins of the Community of Nuns, we find another important point. It is interesting that the first request to go forth to lead a religious life comes not from Brahmin women, but from the Sakyan, a number of whose husbands had become monks under the Buddha. If the Buddha had immediately accepted the Sakyan women’s request, such a rapid decision would have been considered scandalous by those who opposed the Buddha’s teachings. The orthodox Brahmins and some Paribbājakas, who constantly criticized the theories and

It was because of incidents like these that it was forbidden for nuns to live in the forests or See pp.107-108, 123.
Theravāda Buddhism acknowledges that a layman or laywoman can attain arahanthood but says that he or she would not continue to live unless he or she renounces household life (Vinaya I 17; Dhp-a III, 78-84; Milinda, 264; and, BML, p.172).

practices of the Buddha, could have said, “the ascetic Gotama has finally arranged for the Sakyan women to live close to their ex-husbands. “Are they true ascetics? Look how those shaven-headed Sakyan women and men live together. Is there any use in giving food, etc., to these false renouncers?” Remarks such as these are not just hypothetical. Indeed, later, when the Community of Nuns was established, the nuns went into the streets with the monks, and there were people who said, “Those are their wives, those are their mistresses,”⁵¹ etc. It is true that criticism such as this did not have much effect then because there were people who were well informed about the Community and who knew the truth about how they lived. But if the Community of Nuns had been founded before the number of lay disciples was sufficiently great, this sort of criticism could have been an obstacle to the propagation of the new doctrine. Finally, the most remarkable aspect of this story is the answer that the Buddha gave to Āyasmanta Ānanda when he interceded on behalf of Mahā-Pajāpati Gotamī. Āyasmanta Ānanda had requested that the Buddha give permission for her to enter homeless life. Twice the Buddha refused. Then Āyasmanta Ānanda broached the subject from a different angle. He asked if women were incapable of attaining the various stages of liberation should they enter homeless life in this Doctrine and Discipline. The Buddha answered, “O Ānanda, women who renounce household life and enter homeless life that has been taught and established by the Tathāgata are capable of attaining the stages: Sotāpatti, Sakadāgāmi, Anāgāmi and Arahant.”⁵² The Buddha’s

See pp.47, 51.
Vinaya, II, 254-55.

reply is very clear. We might well ask however, whether Ānanda’s question was pertinent as there were already lay women who had attained stages such as Sotāpatti, Sakadāgāmi and Anāgāmi. I think that Āyasmanta Ānanda probably wanted to ask the following: “Is it not easier, O Blessed One, for women to attain these stages of liberation after entering homeless life in this Doctrine and this Discipline?” and I also think that the main point of the question attributed to Āyasmanta Ānanda was to obtain a positive answer from the mouth of the Buddha concerning women’s ability to attain the state of perfection of Arahantthood and to abide in that state as nuns.

Even so, the Buddha’s answer is sufficient for us to understand that his initial refusal had not been based on considerations of the spiritual or intellectual capabilities of women but had rather been for other reasons, such as institutional problems: administration, security, etc. Āyasmanta Ānanda immediately followed up the Buddha’s answer with a request: “then, O Blessed One, permit Mahā-Pajāpati Gotamī to enter homeless life in this Doctrine and this Discipline.” She was the Blessed One’s maternal aunt. She was the Blessed One’s foster mother. She nursed him when the Blessed One’s mother passed away. Then the Buddha accepted his disciple’s request. This is how Buddhist women came to have a monastic community of their own. Later on, the nuns were very grateful to Āyasmanta Ānanda.⁵³

However, later some monks were critical of Ānanda’s intercession for the nuns. Perhaps they thought that by supporting the women’s request, he contributed to the decline of the pristine purity of their monastic They probably found proof that they were right in some of the incidents that happened to the nuns. These monks, who probably came

The whole problem does not end then and there. According to the story, after the Buddha had given permission for the foundation of the Community of Nuns, he told Āyasmanta Ānanda, “If women had not gone forth in this Doctrine and this Discipline, the pure doctrine would last for a thousand years, but since they have gone forth, it will only last for five hundred years. When women go forth in any doctrine and discipline it is a factor that diminishes the longevity of that doctrine and discipline. It is like a house where there are many women and few men: Thieves find it easy to enter there. It is like the contagious disease that destroys a crop of sugarcane (...).”⁵⁴ How could the Buddha have expressed such a harsh idea? This can be interpreted in several ways: some scholars think that this is an expression of regret by the Buddha; others see it as an attitude foreign to the Buddha’s thought and that misogynist monks added it to the text. From the doctrinal point of view, however, the Buddha cannot feel regret. In other words, mental states such as regret about the past, being worried about the future, etc., cannot arise in a Buddha. Moreover, the monks who reported these words cannot be said to have been misogynist, because misogynists would not have had the Buddha say that women were capable of attaining arahanthood. Nor should the words of the Buddha about

from Brahman families, did not act during the Buddha’s lifetime, but later, at the first council, four months after the Buddha’s passing away, the parinibbāna, they complained publicly, telling Ānanda to confess his fault and asking him to beg the monks assembled there to pardon him. Āyasmanta Ānanda did not accept that he had committed a fault, but said, “I do not see that I have done a wrong thing. Even so, out of respect for the venerable ones, I ask pardon”—Vinayay, II, 289.

Vinaya, II,

the duration of the religious life be seen as a prediction. Indeed, the Buddha never acted as a prophet. Perhaps he simply wanted to say that if the nuns did not act correctly, if they gave in to their womanly tendencies, the duration of his Teaching would last only as long. Finally, in this dialogue, the Buddha said to Āyasmanta Ānanda that he gave the eight important conditions (see below) to avoid this curtailing of the duration of the religious life.⁵⁵

In my opinion, this episode about the beginning of the Community of Nuns, like a number of stories in the Vinaya-piṭaka, should be considered the equivalent of a case that serves as a legal precedent.⁵⁶ Every element in this episode contains an important message that the founders of the Vinaya-piṭaka wanted to communicate to future generations of this monastic tradition.

First of all, this anecdote emphasizes that the foundation of the Community of Nuns was not an automatic event but rather the result of an insistent request coming from serious women who had a strong desire to lead a religious life.

Second, by showing that the Buddha refused at first, the founders of Vinaya wanted to show that the Community of Nuns was only set up by the Buddha after serious reflection. In this way, they emphasized the determination that had to be present as the very basis of this new community. At the same time they wanted to insist on the fact that the Community of Nuns was created

Vinaya, II, 256; Anguttara Nikaya, IV, 272–77.
We must not forget that all these stories were intended to be recited again and again before a number of listeners (sāvakas and sāvikās), and that in every story there is a message that compilers of the texts wanted to transmit indirectly.

under difficult conditions, so that this organization had to be carefully protected by future generations of nuns.

Third, in reporting the Buddha’s words concerning the ability of women to attain the highest stage of liberation (Arahant), the founders of Vinaya wanted to encourage nuns to attain that stage through entering this new women’s movement.

Fourth, the possible disappearance of the pure doctrine is mentioned as an alarm calling for extreme vigilance in both Communities. Indeed, the physical attractiveness of some nuns could become an attachment to the sensual world for monks who had not yet attained one of the stages of liberation. Therefore, those monks would have to be very careful. Moreover, the nuns would have to be conscientious, not only in conducting themselves properly but also in maintaining their community, for if the religious life should become tainted later on, they would be responsible for that. The words attributed to the Buddha were also a challenge to the nuns to prove that they were capable of overcoming their weaknesses, that is to say, the mental habits of women.

Fifth, this story specifies that the new community was to conform to the norms of the society of the day; that is, it was to grant a certain degree of priority to the monks. This last point is clearly stated in the Eight Great Conditions (attha garu-dhamma) that the Buddha presented to Mahā- Pajāpati Gotamī, namely:

A nun, even though she has been ordained for a hundred years, must greet a monk respectfully, even if he was ordained that very day. She must rise from her seat with her joined hands raised in

salutation and pay him the honour due to him.⁵⁷

Nuns may not spend the rainy season retreat in a region where monks do not reside.
Every fortnight, the nuns must make two requests to the Community of Monks: They must consult them about (i) the date of the formal act of Uposatha and (ii) the date that the monks would come for the
At the end of the rainy season retreat, the nuns must make a triple invitation to both Communities: That any monk or nun accuse them of a fault if he or she has (i) seen, (ii) heard, or (iii) had cause to suspect that they are guilty of offence.
A nun who has committed a serious fault must undergo a period of manatta of half a month before both Communities.

Communities. Indeed, the physical attractiveness of some nuns could become an attachment to the sensual world for monks who had not yet attained one of the stages of liberation. Therefore, those monks would have to be very careful. Moreover, the nuns would have to be conscientious, not only in conducting themselves properly but also in maintaining their community, for if the religious life should become tainted later on, they would be responsible for that. The words attributed to the Buddha were also a challenge to the nuns to prove that they were capable of overcoming their weaknesses, that is to say, the mental habits of women.

The Higher Ordination should not be requested

We will discuss at 55-58 the reason behind such procedures.

from both Communities until a postulant has spent two years of training observing the six precepts.

A nun should on no account rebuke or abuse a
Nuns do not have the right to teach monks, but monks have a duty to teach nuns.

The imposing of these Eight Great Conditions by the Buddha is unique in the history of Buddhist monasticism. Except in this case, the Buddha never established or altered rules on his own initiative. He established a rule when some event made it necessary; he modified or improved the same rule when some other event called for it. He did not hesitate to modify a rule that he had laid down himself. He did not impose conditions on others. Even so, he set his stepmother not one or two conditions, but eight. This was the first and last time that he imposed rules a priori.

The Buddha specified that the purpose of the Eight Great Conditions was to protect the Community of Nuns and he had imposed them just as a man who was building a dike would not want the water in the reservoir to overflow. Mahā-Pajāpati Gotamī was very happy when she was presented with these conditions and said that she would accept them with great joy, just as a young man or young woman would accept a bouquet of lotus or jasmine flowers on his or her head.⁵⁸

This is how, according to the Vinaya reports, a monastic order for Buddhist women was founded in the 5th century BCE, and it was known as Bhikkhunī-saṅgha. If we take this story as symbolic, it shows us how things evolved

Vinaya, II, 255–56.

during the time between the initial idea of founding a community for nuns and its realization, despite a number of cultural and social difficulties.

In July 15, 2023, Dr. Ven. Bhikṣuṇī T.N. Gioi Huong (brown) and her nuns disciples offered lotus flowers to The Pali Tripitaka which was written on leaves in 29 AD, Aloka Vihara, Aluviharaya, Matale

***

The Influence of Buddhism on Sri Lanka’s Culture

Ven. Dr. Walpola Sri Rahula

uddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka and established there in the third century B.C. by Mahinda, the son of Asoka, the great Buddhist Emperor of India. Mahinda was himself a Buddhist monk who was an Arhant, a Saint. At the time, the island had already attained a well-established level of development. Anuradhapura, the capital, was a central, and large city. Governmental administration, both regional, was well instituted and co- ordinated. Architecture had reached a fairly good level. The irrigation system for agriculture was highly developed and organized. But the real progress of Ceylon as a nation and a country began only after the establishment of

Buddhism there.

If we take the term “culture” to denote the ensemble of material, spiritual, intellectual, literary, and artistic values created by people in the course of their history, then Buddhism has and directly been the major influence on Ceylon’s culture during a long period of more than 2000 years.

Buddhism must undoubtedly have influenced Ceylon from the time it was established in the country, but it began to affect the whole life of the people as a nation effectively and categorically from about the second half of the 2nd century B.C. During that period, South Indian Chola prince named Elara, who was a Hindu by religion, had invaded the country, occupied Anuradhapura and had been ruling the northern part of the Island for more that forty years. The south of the island was still independent. A Sinhalese prince from South Ceylon, Dutugemunu (Duttha-gamani) by name, rallied the whole nation around him in his fight for national independence against the invader. His war slogan was: “Not for kingdom, but for Buddhism.” the slogan was psychologically so effective that even bhikkhus (Buddhist monks) left the Order and joined the liberating army. to fight against a foreign invader for national independence became an established Buddhist tradition since freedom was essential to the spiritual as well as the material progress of the community.

This was the beginning of real Sinhala nationalism, or rather religious nationalism. From that day onward, throughout the history of Ceylon up to the present time, Buddhism has swayed the national and political life of the people tremendously, Dutugemunu’s slogan, in varying modern versions, is being used even today by some political parties in Ceylon, particularly during Parliamentary elections.

To understand the extent of the influence of Buddhism on Ceylon’s culture, we must have a clear picture of the role played by the Buddhist temple in the country. Such temples and monasteries are not only places of worship and religious services, but centres of learning and culture as well. Every Buddhist temple, in addition to being a place of religious worship, has also a free school, and the bhikkhus (Buddhist monks) living in the temple were always teachers. Great monastic establishments such as the Mahavihara and the Abhayagiri at Anuradhapura were universities like the Nalanda Mahavihara in India. The whole of education was in the hands of bhikkhus. They taught not only religious subjects, but also the secular arts and sciences—languages, grammar, prosody, rhetoric, logic, history, medicine, astrology, architecture, painting, sculpture, etc.—which had to be studied by everyone from prince down to peasant. Even hospitals were attached to these large monastic establishments, not only for the treatment of the sick, but also for the training of physicians.

Whatever the curriculum, the educational background was Buddhist. Thus every student was taught the fundamental principles Buddhism; ethical and moral precepts and ideas such as respect for life; love for living beings; devotion and regard for parents and elders; duties towards family, relatives, and friends; righteous living; freedom of thought, toleration, etc. The Buddhist temple still is the centre of the village life, and the bhikkhu in the temple is the friend, philosopher, and guide of the villagers. Many a dispute among the villagers is even now settled at the temple through his intervention. Societies for moral, social, and rural development meet at the temple.

We know nothing about any literary works in Ceylon before the introduction of Buddhism to the island. Its earliest written records belong to about the third or second century B.C.: some short inscriptions, carved under the drip ledges of caves occupied by Buddhist monks as their cells, to celebrate the names of those who donated those caves to the Sangha (Order of Buddhist monks).

Mahinda must be considered the person who introduced Ceylon, along with Buddhism, some kind of literary work. It is reported that he got the commentaries on the Pali Tipitaka written down in Sinhala. These Sinhala Commentaries formed a voluminous literature. They were translated into Pali in the 5th century A.C. by Buddhaghosa, and these translations are known today as the Pali Commentaries. In consequence of these translations all the original Sinhala Commentaries were unfortunately lost—an irreparable loss to Sinhala literature.

Almost all the early literary works now available (except for Sinhala epigraphic inscriptions) are in Pali. Ten great Sinhala poets who lived about the 6th century

A.C. are mentioned in the Chronicles, but their works have not survived. All Sinhala literary works, both prose and poetry, extant today, were written after about the 9th century A.C. Except a few works on secular subjects like grammar, prosody, rhetoric, medicine, all others deal with Buddhist subjects.

In the whole of Buddhist literature in Ceylon no book has exercised so much influence on the people as the Jataka Book. It is a collection of 550 stories of the Buddha’s previous births. They are delightful stories—some in the form of fables—teaching simple moral lessons and practical common sense. They are frequently used as illustration by bhikkhus and bhikkhunis in their sermons. People read them and listen to them as they are read in temples on religious (poya) days.This book has inspired poets and artists throughout the ages, not only in Ceylon but also in all other Buddhist countries. Many classical Sinhala poems borrow their themes from Jataka stories. Mural paintings in Buddhist Viharas depict some popular scenes from these stories. Even modern writers, poets, and artists in Ceylon are considerably indebted to this Jataka tradition.

It is also due to the influence of Buddhism that Ceylon possesses a continued and unbroken history of the island from the beginning to the modern period. It has been the practice among bhikkhus from earliest times to maintain historical records of important events of their religion, as evident from the Vinaya texts (Code of Discipline for Buddhist monks and nuns) and the Commentaries. Following this Buddhist tradition, the Mahāvaṃsa, the Great Chronicle of the Island of Ceylon, was composed by a Buddhist monk named Mahanama in the 5th century A.C. This Chronicle has been continued up to the present century at different periods by Buddhist monks.

This great work, written in elegant Pali verse, is almost an epic embellished with poetic diction and imagery. More than the history of Ceylon, more than the history of Buddhism, it is the history of Buddhist Sinhalese. It is this book that inspired Buddhist nationalism. It is this book that welded Buddhism and the Sinhala race inseparably. Its narratives have found their way even to the paintings and sculptures in Buddhist Viharas. Out of its themes new dramas have been written and produced to awaken patriotism, nationalism and devotion to Buddhism. Like the Jataka Book, the Mahāvaṃsa has exercised a tremendous influence on the Sinhala people.

There is a current contrary is true. Buddhism is not only a religion, it is also a whole culture, a whole civilisation. It is well known that art and architecture spread and developed along with Buddhism not only in India, but also in countries like Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Java, China, Korea, Japan, and region Tibet.

The Vinaya texts and commentaries reveal that there were bhikkus who did paint even at the time of the Buddha. In Ceylon Buddhist monks were celebrated for their painting and sculpture. In the 5th century A.C., an exquisite statue of the Buddha, the work of a Sinhala bhikkhu called Nanda, was presented by himself to the Chinese Emperor, when the former visited that country on a deputation with several other bhikkhus. This statue was considered to be a unique work of art. At a certain distance one could see its facial features clearly delineated, but when approached nearer and nearer they gradually grew blurred and disappeared. It is said that many artists sent by kings and rich people from different countries tried to make copies of this statue, but they never succeeded in producing anything like Nanda’s original.

Even in the eighteenth century when Buddhist culture in Ceylon was at a low ebb, the famous paintings at Degaldoruva and Ridivihara, which were earned the high admiration of celebrated art critics, were done by monks under the supervision of Moratota Mahanayaka Thera of Kandy.

Buddhist monks have always been interested in making their viharas attractive and inspiring. They have therefore been careful to get them beautifully adorned with painting and sculpture representing scenes from the Buddha’s life, Jataka stories and even some historical events from the Mahāvaṃsa. On the one hand, they serve as art galleries providing for the aesthetic gratification of the people, and on the other like sermons, they inspire the devotees with ethical and moral ideas and noble emotions and sentiments.

In addition to these religious paintings and sculptures, Viharas and Dagabas or Stupas (e.g., kantaka-cetiya at Mihintale) have always been adorned with decorative art of diverse forms in every period of history up to the present day.

Except for a few isolated examples of secular art like the celebrated paintings at Sigiriya, practically all ancient and mediaeval paintings and sculptures in Ceylon are related to Buddhism or Buddhist history. The Sinhara, the traditional Sinhala artist, was trained, disciplined, and formed in the Buddhist temple. Hence his work, whatever the topic may be, is fundamentally influenced by Buddhist culture. Even the modern Sinhala artist cannot escape this influence.

The influence of Buddhism on Ceylon’s culture which continued from the third century B.C. was seriously interrupted, particularly in some parts of the island, by foreign invasions from the beginning of the 16th century

A.C. At that time, the country had been divided and weakened by internal strife. The Portuguese who occupied some coastal regions of the island from the beginning of the sixteenth century for about 150 years, were extremely intolerant and violently opposed to Buddhism. They converted Sinhala Buddhists in those maritime provinces to Catholicism by all manner of means, cruel and otherwise. Buddhism, Buddhist culture, national customs and traditions were suppressed. Sinhala Buddhist names were replaced by Portuguese Catholic names. No Buddhist was given any position of importance in the land. Even the evidence of a Buddhist in a law court was not accepted.

By the middle of the seventeenth century, with the help of the Sinhala Buddhist king, the Dutch ousted the Portuguese and occupied the maritime provinces for about 138 years. The Dutch, too, continued the same policy of suppressing Buddhism and national Buddhist culture.

Towards the end of the eighteenth century (1796 A.C.), the English got rid of the Dutch and occupied the coastal regions. By 1815 they occupied the whole island. (the British were the first and the only foreign power to occupy the whole of Ceylon during its long history of tweenty-fifth centuries). The British too followed the policy of the Portuguese and the Dutch in suppressing Buddhism and Sinhala Buddhist culture, but much more subtly and subversively.

Thus, during a period of four and a half centuries three European powers—the Portuguese, the Dutch and the British—tried to destroy, undermine and weaken Buddhism and Sinhala Buddhist culture and to introduce Christianity, Christian education, and traditions. to a considerable extent they succeeded in their effort, particularly in coastal regions and urban areas.

Despite all this formidable suppression, obstruction and handicap, Buddhism, Buddhist culture, national traditions and institutions somehow kept alive, maintained themselves and persisted with enormous difficulty, particularly in the provincial and rural areas in the interior of the island, mainly through the unyielding courage, determination, dedication, and effort of Buddhist monks.

In 1880, Colonel H.S. Olcott, an American theosophist, cameto Ceylon, embraced Buddhism, and started avigorous campaign to revive Buddhism, and Buddhist education and culture. With the help of the leading Buddhist monks at the time such as Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala, Battaramulle Sri Subhuti, Migettuwatte Gunananda, Koratota Sobhita, etc., he established the Buddhist theosophical Society and opened hundreds of Buddhist schools throughout the country. Anagarika Dharmapala, the great national leader and Buddhist missionary of Ceylon, a product of this movement, not only continued this work in the island, but also carried it over to India and other countries in Asia, Europe, and America.

In 1948 Ceylon gained its political independence. Since that time there has been a wide national awakening and a great revival of Buddhism and Buddhist culture. Numerous big and small Buddhist societies and organizations for social and cultural development have been formed throughout the island. Hundreds of Daham pasal (special religious schools to teach Buddhism and Buddhist culture to children) have been established. National and Buddhist traditions, institutions and customs which had been scorned and ignored have been revived and encouraged. Buddhism is again exercising a great influence on the social, political and cultural life of the people of Ceylon.

Venerable T.N. Gioi Huong and the delegation of ten nuns from Huong Sen Pagoda take a photo with the Most Ven. Godamunne Pannakitthi Maha Thero, Principal incumbent Nigrodha Khetta Maha Pirivena Buddhist Training College Telembugala Gelioya, Kandy, Srilanka and Dr. Sri Sumedha Thero on July 15, 2023

***

The Revival of the Bhikkhuni Sangha in Sri Lanka

D. Amarasiri Weeraratne

he 8th of December 1996 is a red-letter day in the annals of Theravāda Buddhism. Ven. Mapalagama Wipulasara Maha Thero, President of the Maha Bodhi Society of India, and Head of the prestigious Parama Dhamma Chetiya Pirivena, Ratmalana in collaboration with the World Sangha Council, and the Sakyadhita Organisation of international Buddhist Women organised a colourful ceremony of a historic nature. It involved the revival of the defunct Order of Buddhist Nuns in Theravāda Buddhism.

It is well known that the only Theravāda Buddhist country to which the Bhikkhuni Order was introduced outside India was Sri Lanka. There it flourished and prospered for about 1200 years and finally became defunct with the fall of the Polonnaruwa to the Cholian invaders around 1018 AD. Thereafter, the Bhikkhuni Order was considered defunct and not restorable until the appearance of the Maitreya Buddha in a future aeon. Hence from that time onwards till the British conquest of the island in 1815 Sinhalese women had lost their right to renunciation and leading the holy life of a nun as advocated by the Buddha.

First Nunnery

During the colonial period it was the Anagarika Dharmapala who was the pioneer of the Buddhist revival. Among his programme of work for the revival of Buddhism from its moribund state was the revival of the Order of the Nuns. He opened the first Nunnery in modern Sri Lanka in 1897. He ordained a few European women and some local women renunciates in his Nunnery at Darley Lane, Colombo, which he named Saṅghamittāramaya. Two years later Dharmapala left for India to devote the rest of his life for Buddhist missionary work there. His Nunnery was closed. However, his work was carried forward by CaTherine de Alwis who went to Burma and was ordained there under the name Sudharmachari.⁵⁹

Halfway

She founded the Order of Junior Nuns called Dasa Sil Matas in 1903. Her headquarters was at Katukelle, Kandy. She gathered pupils round her, and as they increased in numbers, branch nunneries were opened in the outstations.

59 The Maha Bodhi, July-December 1996, pp.53-55. https://www.mahabodhi.moe.edu.sg/about-mbs/History/

Many philanthropists offered land for the nunneries. Local Buddhist leaders formed associations to maintain the nunneries and provide the necessities of the nuns.

But a male-chauvinist Sangha hierarchy with their feudalistic, casteist and anti-feminist tradition did not recognise them as even Sāmaṇeri Bhikkhunis. They were regarded as a halfway house between Bhikkhunis and laywomen—an apostate innovation not compatible with the quaternity of disciples recognised by the Buddha, namely, monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen.

However, Sinhalese women renunciates had to be satisfied with this position as in their opinion half a loaf was better than none. However, Sinhalese feminists and Buddhist leaders who attended the opening ceremonies of the main nunneries in Colombo and the outstations often declared, “May the opening of this nunnery lead to the restoration of the Bhikkhuni Sasana in Sri Lanka. The monks of those days attended the opening ceremonies and gave their blessings. There was no display of intolerance or antagonism, maybe because in the colonial days they had no political clout.

First Step

In Sri Lanka, we have been fortunate to have some progressive mind of intellectuals among the Sangha who supported the idea of the restoration of the Bhikkhuni Order. They saw it as a right granted to women by the Buddha and fully in consonance with the Buddha’s call to humanity to renounce and practice the Noble Eightfold path to Nirvana.

In 1952, Ven. Narawala Dhammaratana Thero led a Buddhist delegation to a Peace Conference in Peking, China. While there, he took the occasion to visit Buddhist Nunneries and study the Bhikkhuni Order there. After his return to Sri Lanka, he wrote a book, Does the Future of Lanka Lie in Marxism or Buddhism? where he advocated the revival of the Bhikkhuni Order in Sri Lanka with the help of Chinese Nuns. He stated that the Dasa Sil Matas should be promoted to Bhikkhuni status. Not only that, he started classes for the Dasa Sil Matas at his temple at Narawala, to teach them the Dhamma and the Vinaya to make them fit for Bhikkhuni status. Before he could complete his programme of work, death took him away from our midst. His successors had other interests and priorities.

Another Step

Ven. Hedipannala Pannaloka Thero was an erudite monk with progressive ideas. He valued the teachings of kindness to all (Karuna) and egalitarianism (Samantamata) in Buddhism. He had independently thought of a programme of work to educate and train a batch of Dasa Sil Mata nuns at the Vidyalankara Pirivena, one of the two leading Buddhist Seminaries in Colombo. Before he could finish his programme of work he too passed away. His work went into abeyance.

Later Ven. Henpitagedera Gnanaseeha Nayaka Maha Thera, one of the ablest and respected monks in the 1950s took up the work left behind by the previous pioneers. He had visited China and was impressed with the Bhikkhuni Sasana there which had been formerly established in AD 429 by Sinhalese nuns from Anuradhapura. He started classes and a training course for Dasa Sil Mata nuns to upgrade their proficiency in the Dhamma and the Vinaya. He had in mind the revival of the Bhikkhuni Order here. Before he could finalise his programme of work he passed away unexpectedly. One of his brother monks then continued the work. He was Ven. Henpitagedera Piyananda Thero. He too died, before completing his course of work. The subject of the restoration of the Bhikkhuni Order was hanging fire.

Mr. J.R. Jayawardena became the President of Sri Lanka in 1977. In the pre-independent days he, with other Buddhist leaders, had associated himself with the opening and running of the Biyagama Nunnery in the outskirts of Colombo. He sent a Buddhist delegation to China headed by his Minister E.I.B. Hurulle to study the Chinese Bhikkhuni Order and report on the feasibility of reviving the Bhikkhuni Order in Sri Lanka with the assistance of Chinese. The obscurantists, male chauvinists, and anti- feminists raised a hue and cry. They raised the Mahayana bogey saying that the Pure Theravāda Buddhism we have persevered is going to be contaminated with Mahayana heresies”. As a result the report of the delegation was hushed up and swept under the carpet. Then the country went into turmoil and anarchy due to the J.V.P. terrorism. No one knows what happened to the recommendations of the delegation or where the report is.

Restoration of Bhikkhuni Order

The Sakyadhita Conference of international Buddhist Women at its inaugural session at Buddha Gaya in 1992 and the Colombo session in 1994 called for the restoration of the Bhikkhuni Order in Theravāda lands. Thus it would be seen that there has been a movement for the restoration in progressive Buddhist circles since the time of the colonial days.

Therefore, it would be seen that Ven. Mapalagama Wipulasara Maha Thera in concert with the Maha Bodhi Society and the World Council has fulfilled a much- cherished aspiration of the Buddhist feminists and progressives. Women’s rights are a part of human rights and progress. The U.N.O. was accepted by member countries. We cannot go back on the right of renunciation and leading the holy life of a Bhikkhuni, as ordained by the Buddha 2540 years ago. He strove to eliminate casteism and anti-feminism in Indian society. After his lifetime some reactionary forces reared their head spearheaded by Hindu revivalists such as Sankarachaya, Appar, Sundarar, Tirugnana Sambanthan, etc. Their activities coupled with the devastation of the Muslim invaders drove Buddhism out of India. Casteism and anti-feminism entered Sinhalese Buddhism after the Polonnaruwa period when society came under strong South India influence and became semi-Dravidianised in culture and religion. From then onward Sinhalese Buddhism became an admixture of Buddhism and Hinduism. The talk of preserving “pure Theravāda Buddhism” is a meaningless one. It is time we got rid of casteism and anti-feminism, two milestones around our necks. An important step in that direction will be the restoration of the Bhikkhuni Sasana.

Objection Cleared

In a T.V. programme broadcast on 22.9.97, Ven. M. Wipulasara Maha Thero along with three university professors—experts on the Buddha Dhamma, explained the significance and value of the ordinations. They cleared misconceptions and objections raised by the obscurantists who peddle the Mahayana bogey. Impressive scenes from the ordination were shown on the TV programme. They will remain in the memories of the viewers for a long time.⁶⁰

60 Revival of the Bhikkhuni Order in Sri Lanka by D. Amarasiri

Weeraratne

https://www.buddhanet.net/nunorder.htm

***

Special Report: Landmark Supreme Court

Ruling Affirms Equal Rights for

Buddhist Bhikkhunis in Sri Lanka

By Craig C Lewis

June 18, 2025

n a landmark ruling that stands as an affirmation of equality for female monastics in the Theravada tradition, the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka on Monday ordered that Venerable Welimada Dhammadinna Bhikkhuni should receive an official National Identity Card recognizing her status as a fully ordained monastic, rather than as a sil matha (Sinhalese: “precept mother”)—a female renunciant, similar to an anagarika, who observes

eight or 10 precepts but has not received full ordination.

The Supreme Court ruled that a fully ordained Buddhist nun must be officially recognized as a bhikkhuni—the first time that the country’s highest court has ruled that the state is constitutionally obligated to treat a bhikkhuni on equal footing with a bhikkhu.

Sakyadhita in Sri Lanka

(https://www.sakyadhita-srilanka.org/)

Sri Lanka’s bhikkhuni lineage collapsed during the Saivite Chola invasion in 1017 CE. With the loss of full ordination, women who wished to undertake a commitment to serious Buddhist practice could only become sil mathas. Although the bhikkhuni lineage has since been reestablished in modern Sri Lanka, it is still not officially recognized by the country’s dominant monastic institutions. Many fully ordained women face bureaucratic obstacles, including difficulties obtaining ID cards that acknowledge them as bhikkhunis, reflecting broader institutional reluctance to fully reintegrate them into the Theravada monastic hierarchy, despite the legitimacy of their ordination.

The Theravada bhikkhuni order was revived in 1996, when 11 Sri Lankan women received full ordination in Sarnath, India, thanks to the efforts of the Sakyadhita International Association of Buddhist Women, the world’s leading body committed to transforming the lives of women in Buddhist societies. Today there are in excess of 4,000 bhikkhunis in Sri Lanka.

Supreme Court of Sri Lanka. From srilankamirror.com

In its historic ruling on 16 June, Sri Lanka’s high court directed the Commissioner General of the Department of Registration of Persons, under the Ministry of Internal Affairs, to issue a National Identity Card to Ven. Welimada Dhammadinna Bhikkhuni—not as a sil matha, but under her rightful title of bhikkhuni.

Chief Justice Murdu Fernando and Justice Gamini Amarasekera found that the department’s refusal to use the title “bhikkhuni” despite Ven. Welimada Dhammadinna Bhikkhuni’s ordination under the Rangiri Dambulla

Chapter constituted unequal treatment based on gender. “It is obvious that if the first petitioner (the bhikkhuni)

had been male, she would not have encountered these difficulties,” Justice Amarasekera observed. “She has been denied recognition as a bhikkhuni, despite being acknowledged as such by the Rangiri Dambulu Buddhist Chapter to which she belongs, an order recognized by the government. Hence, it is clear that her rights under Article 12(1) of the Constitution have been violated by the actions and conduct of the first respondent.”

Responding to the news, the International Network of Engaged Buddhists, which has long been a vocal advocate for gender equality and full religious rights and freedoms for female monastics, lauded the decision and its profound implications for the greater Buddhist sangha.

“INEB extends our heartfelt congratulations to the Sri Lankan bhikkhuni sangha on the historic Supreme Court ruling affirming their right to a national identity card bearing the rightful title of bhikkhuni. This landmark decision is not only a long-overdue recognition of their dignity and status as fully ordained monastics, but also a significant milestone for all bhikkhunis around the world who continue to seek justice, equality, and inclusion in religious life,” INEB said in a public statement dated 18 June and shared with BDG.

“This courageous ruling sends a powerful message: that spiritual commitment and ethical leadership deserve recognition and respect—regardless of gender. It affirms the fundamental principle that no one should be excluded from their rightful place in society or the Sangha based on outdated norms or discriminatory interpretations.”

Image courtesy of INEB

The path to reviving bhikkhuni ordination in Sri Lanka has not been a smooth one. Despite having roots in the Buddha’s earliest teachings, ordained women have faced entrenched institutional and bureaucratic resistance. In particular, Sri Lanka’s traditional Buddhist monastic authorities have been reluctant to officially recognize female ordination. As such, the sil matha tradition continues to serve as the most accepted path for women seeking a deeply spiritual life.

The court’s decision this week represents a restoration of state-level recognition of Sri Lanka’s bhikkhuni

sangha, and an affirmation of the legitimacy of bhikkhuni ordination and the rightful place of female monastics in the fourfold sangha prescribed by Shakyamuni Buddha: bhikkhus, bhikkhunis, laymen, and laywomen.

Spiritual freedoms aside, identity cards in Sri Lanka are also an essential part of daily life, required for all official activities: to vote, open a bank account, apply for a passport, sit exams, and more.

The coordinator for INEB’s Peace Project and Women’s Program, Anchalee Kurutach, who authored INEB’s statement, shared her personal perspective on the news, noting: “Over the past three years, I have had the privilege of working closely with monastic leaders, and I have witnessed firsthand how female monastics have had to constantly prove themselves and their worth— often while keeping a low profile. I see them not only as pioneers, but as true spiritual warriors.

“It takes immense courage to become a bhikkhuni. These women work hard, practice and study diligently, and follow the Vinaya with exceptional discipline and integrity. They have entered monastic life with full commitment— not for a few days or months, but for the long journey. They are walking against the mainstream, choosing a path that demands inner strength and a deep conviction.

“For that courage and commitment alone, I bow to them with the utmost respect.”

Buddhism is the state religion of Sri Lanka, which gained independence from British rule in 1948, with

70.2 per cent of the population identifying as Theravada Buddhists, according to census data for 2012. Hindus made up 12.6 per cent of Sri Lankans, while Muslims accounted

for 9.7 per cent, Christians 7.4 per cent, and others 0.05 per cent. As the state religion, Buddhism receives special privileges under Sri Lanka’s constitution, although the constitution also stipulates freedom of religion and right to equality for all citizens.

SOURCE:

Special Report: Landmark Supreme Court Ruling Affirms Equal Rights for Buddhist Bhikkhunis in Sri Lanka (Buddhistdoor Global)

https://www.buddhistdoor.net/news/special-report- landmark-supreme-court-ruling-affirms-equal-rights-for- buddhist-bhikkhunis-in-sri-lanka/

Venerable T.N. Giới Hương and her ten nun disciples from Hương Sen Pagoda on a pilgrimage to Ruvanwali Maha Chethiya Stupa, Anuradhapura, July 12, 2023.

Amunugama, The Lion’s Roar: Anagarika Dharmapala and the Making of Modern Buddhism. Oxford University Press, 2019.
Baba, 2022. “Buddhaghosa.” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion, October. https:// doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.557.
De Silva, Chandra R. “The Education of Buddhist Monks in Sri Lanka: A Historical Review and Some Suggestions for Reform.” Sri Lanka Journal of the Humanities 42, no. 1-2 (2019):
De Silva, Chandra 2019. “The Education of Buddhist Monks in Sri Lanka: A Historical Review and Some Suggestions for Reform.” Sri Lanka Journal of the Humanities 42 (1-2): 1. https://doi.org/10.4038/ sljh.v42i1-2.7253.
Dharmadasa, N. O. “Buddhist resurgence and Christian privilege in Sri Lanka, C. 1940-1965,” Ethnic Conflict in Buddhist Societies: Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, pp. 110-125. Routledge, 2019.
Gamage, David , and Prasad Setunga. “Developments in the Sri Lankan System of Education: Third century BC to the Twenty-First Century AD,” Handbook of Asian Education, pp. 403-424. Routledge, 2010.

Gamage, Sir. “A Buddhist Approach to Knowledge Construction and Education in Sri Lanka (Ceylon) in the Context of Colonisation and Southern theory,”(2016), Postcolonial Directions in Education, Volume 5, Issue 1, in 2016, pp. 83-116.
Harischandra, Brahmachari Walisinha, the Sacred City of Anuradhapura: With forty-Six Illustrations, self- published by the author in Colombo, 1908.
Keerthirathne, W. K. D. “A Study On Evolution of Pirivena as an Educational institute From Past to the Present in the History of Traditional Education in Sri Lanka.” international Journal of Humanities and Social Science invention (IJHSSI) 9 (2020): 41-45.
Kemper, 1984. “The Buddhist Monkhood, the Law, and the State in Colonial Sri Lanka.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 26 (3): 401–27. https:// doi.org/10.1017/s0010417500011063.
Lavoie, Jeffrey The theosophical Society: The History of a Spiritualist Movement. Universal- Publishers, 2012.
Mahāvaṃsa. Chatta Sangayana CD Rom, Dharmagiri, Vipassana Research institute,
“Monasticism in Sri Lanka.” n.d. Obo. https://www. com/display/document/obo- 9780195393521/obo-9780195393521-0021.xml.
Obeyesekere, G. (1976). “The Impact of the British Orientalist Discourse on ” in R. Frykenberg (Ed.), Modern Education and the Revival of Buddhism in India. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Oldenberg, ed., The Dipavamsa: An Ancient

Buddhist Historical Record, Williams and Norgate, 1879.

Peiris, G. Hubert and Arasaratnam, Sinnappah. “Sri ” Encyclopedia Britannica, July 10, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/place/Sri-Lanka.
Ruberu, “Missionary Education in Ceylon.”

Educational Policy and the Mission Schools, pp. 73-

Routledge, 2013.

Saram, A. (1977). “Buddhism and Society in Modern Sri Lanka.” international Social Science Journal, 29 (2).
Somananda, An introduction to Buddhist Thoughts and institutions in Sri Lanka. (2021)
Williams and Norgate, London,

Sacred Island – A Buddhist Pilgrim’s Guide to Sri

Lanka. Ven. S. Dhammika 2008. Champika Printers. http://www.buddhanet.net/sacred-island/

http://www.buddhanet.net/sacred-island/introduction. html

Phật giáo tại Sri Lanka, Piyadassi ManhāThera, Phạm Kim Khánh dịch.

https://www.vomonthientu.org/a356/14-phat-giao-tai- sri-lanka-

The Essence Guide to Custom & Culture, Culture

Smart – Sri Lanka. Emma Boyle. 2016.

Sri Lonely Planet. 2018.
Buddhism in Sri Lanka: A Short History, by R. Perera, 2007

https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/perera/ wheel100.html#sect-47

Sri Pada: Buddhism’s Most Sacred Mountain, A Pilgrim Guide, by Venerable S Dhammika http://www. net/e-learning/buddhistworld/sri-pada.htm
Critical Studies on the Early History of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Professor Dhammavihari Thera. Buddhist Cultural Centre: Deliwala.
Walking in the Sunshine of the Bhikkhunis – A Biography of Ranjani de Silva – the Women behind the Bikkhuni Revival. Bhikkhuni Buddhist Cultural Centre: Deliwala. 2021.
Buddhist Ceremonies and Rituals of Sri Lanka. G.S. Kariyawasam. The Wheel Publication. 1995.
The Ancient Maha Vihara Tradition and Malwatu-

Asgiri Viharas. Ven Dr. K. Sri Pemaloka. 2008.

Braving the Unknown Summit – Autobiography of Bhikkhuni Dr. Kolonnawe Kusuma. Akna Publishers. 2012.
The Journey of Women Going forth into the Bhikkhuni

Order in Sri Lanka. [Publisher TBD], n.d.

“Reflections from the 14th Sakyadhita international Conference: Nurturing the Theravada Bhikkhuni ” Buddhistdoor Global, 27 Aug. 2015, https://www2.buddhistdoor.net/features/reflections- from-the-14th-sakyadhita-international-conference- nurturing-the-Theravada-bhikkhuni-sangha.
Bhikkhunis in Sri Lanka and the West. [Publisher TBD], n.d.

Buddhist Culture & Sri Lanka Pilgrim’s Guide. Ven. Narada, P. Malalasekara, Ven. K. Wimalajothi. Buddhist Cultural Centre: Deliwala. 2012, 2013, 2014.
Some Traditional Festivals of Sri Lanka. Rohana R. S. Godage & Brothers (Pvt) Ltd. 2013.
Ceremonies, Festivals and Rituals of the Sinhalese: An Anthropological Approach. Chandrasiri Palliyaguru. Sarasavi 2019, 2022.

“Reviving the Bhikkhuni Sangha in indonesia: An interview with Ayya Santini.” Buddhistdoor Global, 24 Nov. 2016, https://www.buddhistdoor.net/features/ reviving-the-bhikkhuni-sangha-in-indonesia-an- interview-with-ayya-santini.
The 2,600th Anniversary of the Global Bhikkhuni Sangha and Fourfold Sangha of the Buddha
Commemoration of the 270^th Anniversary of Establishment of Siyam Lanka Kumar. 2023.
“Brahmali, The Buddhist Stance on Theravada Women’s Issues: A Conversation on Gender Equality and Ethics with Ajahn Brahmali.”
Dhammadinna, Professor Nedalagamuwe. Sri Lanka Chinese. Department of Modern Languages, University of Kelaniya. Samayawardhana Book Shop (Pvt) Ltd., 2018.
W. Nicholas, Historical topography of Ancient and Medieval Ceylon, Colombo, 1963.
Buddhistdoor View: “New Theravada Bhikkhuni Ordinations a Cause for Joy,” December17,

https://www.buddhistdoor.net/features/buddhistdoor-

view-new-Theravada-bhikkhuni-ordinations-a-cause- for-joy/

A. Nilakanta Sastri, foreign Notices of South India, Madras, 1939. W. Skeen, Adam’s Peak, Colombo, 1870.
Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither, Vols I-IV, 1913-

16.

Holt, John Clifford. “Asala Perahara: Powers of the Buddha Relic in Sri ” in Theravāda Traditions – Buddhist Ritual Cultures in Contemporary Southwest Asia and Sri Lanka, 201-220. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2017.
Biên niên sử về Hải Đảo (Dīpavamsa – the Chronicle of the Island of Ceylon). Bimala Churn Law. Salman Press,
Characteristics of Buddhist Pilgrimages in Sri Lanka. Robert Stoddard. University of Nebraska – Lincoln. 1988.

(https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1032&context=geographyfacpub)

Buddhism in Sinhalese Society 1750-1900. Kitsiri
The Sri Lanka Reader.
The Buddhist Revival in Sri Lanka – Religious Tradition, Reinterpretation and Response, George D. Bond, University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, South 1988.
Island of Light – Buddhism in Sri Lanka – A Concise

History and Guide to Its Sacred Sites, T. Y. Lee, foreword by Ven. P. Gnanarama Ph.D. Singapore: KepMeadia international Pte Ltd. 2010.

Phật Giáo Tích Trần Quang Thuận. Nhà xuất bản: NXB Tôn Giáo https://nhasachvanhanh.com/shop/ nghien-cuu-khao-luan/phat-giao-tich-lan
“View from the Audience: Looking Back on the 15th Sakyadhita Conference in Hong Kong,” Sakyadhita international Association of Buddhist Women, https:// academia.edu/34955973/View_from_the_ Audience_Looking_Back_on_the_15th_Sakyadhita_ Conference_in_Hong_Kong.
Tu viện, Tháp Phật ở Tích Lan: http://www. vn/news.aspx?KenhID=68&ChuDeID

Sự Phục Hưng Phật Giáo Tại Tích Lan - Nguyên Tác Đức Ngữ: Ernst Benz. - Chuyển Ngữ: H.t. Thích Trí Chơn
https://thuvienhoasen.org/a14635/su-phuc-hung-phat- giao-tai-tich-lan-nguyen-tac-duc-ngu-ernst-benz- chuyen-ngu-h-t-thich-tri-chon
Phật giáo tại Sri Lanka. Piyadassi ManhāThera, Phạm Kim Khánh dịch, https://www.vomonthientu.org/ a356/14-phat-giao-tai-sri-lanka
Phật Giáo và Thánh Tích Sri Lanka, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Tôn Giáo.

https://huongsentemple.com/index.php/vn/kinh-sach/ tu-sach-bao-anh-lac/8707-sri-lanka

***

TỦ SÁCH BẢO ANH LẠC

do Ni Sư Tiến Sĩ T.N. Giới Hương biên soạn

Boddhisattva and Sunyata in the Early and Developed Buddhist Traditions, Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong, Delhi-7: Eastern Book Linkers, 1^st print 2004. Tái bản 2^nd reprint 2005 & Vietnam Buddhist University: HCM City: 3^rd

Bồ-tát và Tánh Không Trong Kinh Tạng Pali và Đại Thừa, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Delhi-7: Tủ Sách Bảo Anh Lạc, Tái bản lần 2 & 3, NXB Tổng Hợp Tp HCM, 2008 & 2010.
Ban Mai Xứ Ấn (3 tập) – Tuyển tập các Tiểu Luận Phật Giáo, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Delhi-7: 2005 và 2006. Nhà Xuất Bản Văn Hóa Sài Gòn,
Sārnātha - Vườn Nai – Chiếc Nôi Phật Giáo, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Delhi-7: 2005 và NXB Phương Đông, 2008 & 2010.
Xá Lợi Của Đức Phật, Tham Weng Yew, Thích Nữ Giới Hương chuyển ngữ, Delhi-7: 2005 và 2006. Tái bản lần 3, NXB Tổng Hợp Tp HCM,
Quy Y Tam Bảo và Năm Giới, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Wisconsin, USA, Tái bản NXB Hồng Đức, năm 2010 & 2016.
Vòng Luân Hồi, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Phương

Đông, 2008, 2010, 2014 và lần thứ 4, 2016.

Hoa Tuyết Milwaukee, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Văn Hoá Sài gòn, 2008.
Luân Hồi trong Lăng Kính Lăng Nghiêm, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Văn Hóa Sài gòn, 2008, 2012, 2014 và lần thứ 4, 2016.
Quan Âm Quảng Trần, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Tổng Hợp, 2010, 2012, 2014 và lần thứ 4, NXB Hồng Đức, 2018.
Sen Nở Nơi Chốn Tử Tù, nhiều tác giả, Thích Nữ Giới Hương chuyển ngữ, NXB Văn Hóa Sài gòn, 2010, 2012 và 2014.
Nữ Tu và Tù Nhân Hoa Kỳ, (2 tập), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Văn Hóa Sài gòn, 2010, 2011, 2014 và lần thứ 4, 2016. NXB Hồng Đức,
Nếp Sống Tỉnh Thức của Đức Đạt Lai Lạt Ma Thứ XIV: (2 tập), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Hồng Đức, năm 2012, 2014, và 2016.
A-Hàm: Mưa pháp chuyển hóa phiền não, (2 tập), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Hồng Đức, năm 2012, 2014, và lần thứ 3, 2016.
Góp Từng Hạt Nắng Perris, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Hồng Đức,
Pháp Ngữ của Kinh Kim Cang, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Hồng Đức, Tái bản lần thứ 2 & 3: 2015 & 2016.
Tập Thơ Nhạc Nắng Lăng Nghiêm, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Hồng Đức,
Rebirth Views in the Śūraṅgama Sūtra, Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, Fifth Edition, NXB Hồng Đức, 2018.

Commentary of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva, Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương, Fourth Edition, NXB Hồng Đức, 2018.
Nét Bút Bên Song Cửa, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Hồng Đức,
Danh Ngôn Nuôi Dưỡng Nhân Cách - Good Words Nurture a Good Manner, Thích Nữ Giới Hương sưu tầm, NXB Hồng Đức,
Hương Sen, Thơ và Nhạc -Lotus Fragrance, Poem and Music (Song ngữ Anh-Việt), Nguyễn Hiền Đức. Chuyển Anh Ngữ: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Hồng Đức,
Cách Chuẩn Bị Chết và Giúp Người Sắp Chết-Quan Điểm Phật Giáo (Preparing for Death and Helping the Dying – A Buddhist Perspective), Sangye Khadro, Chuyển Việt Ngữ: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, tái bản lần 5, NXB Hồng Đức,
The Key Words in Vajracchedikā Sūtra, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Hồng Đức Publishing,
Văn Hóa Đặc Sắc của Nước Nhật Bản-Exploring the Unique Culture of Japan (Song ngữ Anh-Việt), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Hồng Đức, 2020.
Take Refuge in the Three Gems and Keep the Five Precepts, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Hồng Đức Publishing,
Sống An Lạc dù Đời không Đẹp như Mơ-Live Peacefully though Life is not Beautiful as a Dream (Song ngữ Anh-Việt), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB

Hồng Đức, 2020.

Sārnātha —The Cradle of Buddhism from an Archeological Perspective, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Hồng Đức Publishing,
Hãy Nói Lời Yêu Thương-Words of Love and Understanding (Song ngữ Anh-Việt), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Hồng Đức Publishing,
Văn Hóa Cổ Kim qua Hành Hương Chiêm Bái -The Ancient- Present Culture in Pilgrim (Song ngữ Anh- Việt), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Hồng Đức, 2020
Cycle of Life, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Hồng Đức,
Nghệ Thuật Biết Sống-Art of Living (Song ngữ Anh- Việt), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Hồng Đức Publishing,
Ni Giới Việt Nam Hoằng Pháp tại Hoa Kỳ, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Hồng Đức Publishing,
Sharing the Dharma -Vietnamese Buddhist Nuns in the United States, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Hồng Đức Publishing,
Tập Thơ Nhạc Lối Về Sen Nở, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Hồng Đức,
Hương Đạo Trong Đời 2022 (Tuyển tập 60 Bài Thi trong Cuộc Thi Viết Văn Ứng Dụng Phật Pháp 2022 - A Collection of Writings on the Practicing of Buddhism in Daily Life in the Writing Contest 2022), Thích Nữ Giới Hương biên soạn, NXB Hồng Đức,
Hương Pháp 2022 (Tuyển Tập Các Bài Thi Trúng Giải Cuộc Thi Viết Văn Ứng Dụng Phật Pháp 2022 - A Collection of the Winning Writings on the Practicing of Buddhism in Daily Life in the Writing Contest 2022) Thích Nữ Giới Hương biên soạn, NXB Hồng Đức, 2022.

The Ceremony for Peace, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed, NXB Hồng Đức,
The Lunch Offering Ritual, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed, NXB Hồng Đức,
The Ritual Offering Food to Hungry Ghosts, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed, NXB Hồng Đức,
The Pureland Course of Amitabha Sutra, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed, NXB Hồng Đức,
The Medicine Buddha Sutra, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed, NXB Hồng Đức,
The New Year Ceremony, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed, NXB Hồng Đức,
The Great Parinirvana Day, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed, NXB Hồng Đức,
The Buddha’s Birthday Ceremony, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed, NXB Hồng Đức,
The Ullambana Festival (Parents’ Day), Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed, NXB Hồng Đức,
The Marriage Ceremony, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed, NXB Hồng Đức,
The Blessing Ceremony for The Deceased, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed, NXB Hồng Đức, 2023.

The Ceremony of Praising Ancestral Masters, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed. Hương Sen 2023.
The Enlightened Buddha Ceremony, Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed, NXB Hồng Đức,
The Uposatha Ceremony (Reciting Precepts), Bhikṣuṇī Thích Nữ Giới Hương composed, NXB Hồng Đức,
Giới Hương - Thơm Ngược Gió Ngàn, Nguyên Hà, NXB Tôn Giáo.
Pháp Ngữ Kinh Hoa Nghiêm (2 tập). Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Tôn Giáo,
Tinh Hoa Kinh Hoa Nghiêm. Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Tôn Giáo,
Buddhism: A Historical And Practical Vision, Edited by Dr. Thich Hanh Chanh and Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong, Tôn Giáo Publishing, 2023.
Phật Giáo – Tầm Nhìn Lịch Sử Và Thực Hành, Hiệu đính: Thích Hạnh Chánh và Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Tôn Giáo,
Contribution of Buddhism For World Peace & Social Harmony. Buddhist Studies Seminar in Kolkata, Edited by Ven. Dr. Buddha Priya Mahathero and Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong, Tôn Giáo Publishing, 2023.
Global Spread of Buddhism with Special Reference to Sri Lanka. Buddhist Studies Seminar in Kandy University. Edited by Ven. Kahawatte Siri Sumedha Thero and Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong, Hồng Đức Publishing House, 2023.

Buddhism In Sri Lanka During The Period of 19^th to 21st Centuries. Buddhist Studies Seminar in Edited by Prof. Ven. Medagama Nandawansa and Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong, Hồng Đức Publishing House, 2023.
Nhật ký Hành Thiền Vipassana và Kinh Tứ Niệm Xứ - Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Tôn Giáo,
Diary: Practicing Vipassana and the Four Foundations of Mindfulness Sutta. Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Tôn Giáo Publishing,
Dharamshala - Hành Hương Vùng Đất Thiêng, Ấn Độ, Dharamshala - Pilgrimage to the Sacred Land, India. Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Tôn Giáo Publishing,
Nghi cúng Thánh Tổ Kiều Đàm Di, Thích Nữ Giới Hương biên soạn, NXB Tôn Giáo,
Kỷ Yếu Lễ Tưởng Niệm Thánh Tổ Kiều Đàm Di tại Chùa Hương Sen năm 2024, Thích Nữ Giới Hương biên soạn, NXB Tôn Giáo,
Phật Giáo và Thánh Tích Sri Lanka, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Tôn Giáo,
Đấu Tranh Bất Bạo Động Là Nền Tảng Xây Dựng Hòa Bình Toàn Cầu (Bài thuyết trình cho Hội Nghị Thượng đỉnh về các Vấn đề Nhân đạo, An ninh Y tế và Hòa bình Toàn cầu ngày 26-31 tháng 8 năm 2024 tại Missouri, Hoa Kỳ), Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Tôn Giáo,
Nonviolent Struggle - The Foundation for Building Global Peace (Presentation at the Humanitarian Affairs Health Security and Global Peace Summit August 26- 31, 2024, Missouri, USA). Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong, Ton Giao Publishing, 2024.

The Great Contribution to World Peace and Social Harmony of Emperor Ashoka and Emperor Trần Nhân Tông - Sự Đóng Góp cho Hòa Bình Thế Giới và An Toàn Xã Hội của Hoàng Đế A-Dục và Vua Trần Nhân Tông, Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong, Ton Giao Publishing, 2025.
COVID-19: Vai trò Phật Giáo trong Việc Chữa Lành, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Hồng Đức,
Đại Dịch Coronavirus trong Thế Kỷ XXI, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Hồng Đức,
A Buddhist Nun and American Inmates. Bhikṣuṇī T.N. Giới Hương. Hong Duc Publishing,
Đóng góp của Phật Giáo cho Hòa Bình Thế Giới và Hòa Hợp Xã Hội, Hòa thượng Tiến sĩ Buddha Priya Mahathero & Ni sư Tiến sĩ TN Giới Hương, NXB Hồng Đức,
Phật Giáo Sri Lanka từ Thế Kỷ 19-21, Hòa thượng Giáo sư Medagama Nandawansa, Ni sư Tiến sĩ TN Giới Hương, NXB Tôn Giáo,
Phật Giáo Sri Lanka từ Thế Kỷ 19-21, Hòa thượng Giáo sư Medagama Nandawansa, Ni sư Tiến sĩ TN Giới Hương, NXB Tôn Giáo,
Ngày nhà giáo Việt Nam 20/11 – Tri Ân Người Khai Trí, Thích Nữ Giới Hương, NXB Hồng Đức,
Phật Giáo Sri Lanka từ Thế Kỷ 19-21, Hòa thượng Giáo sư Medagama Nandawansa, Ni sư Tiến sĩ TN Giới Hương, NXB Tôn Giáo,

ĐĨA CA NHẠC PHẬT GIÁO CHÙA HƯƠNG SEN

Đào Xuân Lộng Ý Kinh, Thơ: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Nhạc: Nam Hưng, Album 1, năm 2013.
Niềm Tin Tam Bảo, Thơ: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Nhạc: Hoàng Y Vũ & Hoàng Quang Huế, Album 2, năm
Trăng Tròn Nghìn Năm Đón Chờ Ai, Thơ: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Nhạc: Võ Tá Hân, Hoàng Y Vũ, Khánh Hải, Khánh Hoàng, Hoàng Kim Anh, Linh Phương và Nguyễn Tuấn, Album 3, năm
Ánh Trăng Phật Pháp, Thơ: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Nhạc: Uy Thi Ca & Giác An, Album 4, năm
Bình Minh Tỉnh Thức (Piano Variations for Meditation), Thơ: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Độc Tấu Dương Cầm và Hòa Tấu: Nữ Nhạc Sĩ Linh Phương, Album 5, năm
Tiếng Hát Già Lam, Thơ: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Nhạc: Nam Hưng, Album 6, năm
Cảnh Đẹp Chùa Xưa, Nhạc: Hoàng Quang Huế, Hoàng Y Vũ, Võ Tá Hân & Khánh Hải, Album 7, năm
Karaoke Hoa Ưu Đàm Đã Nở, Thơ: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Nhạc: Nam Hưng, Album 8, năm
Hương Sen Ca, Thơ: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Nhạc: Nam Hưng, Album 9, năm
Về Chùa Vui Tu, Thơ: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Nhạc: Nguyên Hà & Nam Hưng, Album 10, năm

Gọi Nắng Xuân Về, Thơ: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Nhạc: Nam Hưng, Album 11, năm 2020.
Đệ Tử Phật. Thơ: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Nhạc: Uy Thi Ca & Giác An, Album 12, năm 2023.
Hoa Pháp Cú. Thơ: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Nhạc: Nam Hưng, Album 13, năm 2024.
Vu Lan Báo Hiếu. Thơ: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Nhạc: Uy Thi Ca, Album 14, năm 2024.
Nương Bóng Từ Quang, Thơ: Thích Nữ Giới Hương và Thích Nữ Viên Nhuận, Nhạc: Nguyên Hà, Album 15, năm 2025.

Mời xem: http://www.huongsentemple.com/index.php/ kinh-sach/tu-sach-bao-anh-lac

***

HỘI LUẬT GIA VIỆT NAM NHÀ XUẤT BẢN HỒNG ĐỨC

65 Tràng Thi, phường Cửa Nam, Hà Nội Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. Điện thoại: 024.39260024 Fax: 024.39260031

HISTORY OF BUDDHIST EDUCATION IN SRI LANKA REVIVAL OF THE BHIKKHUNI SANGHA

- Dr. Ven. Bhikṣuṇī T.N. Gioi Huong -

Chịu trách nhiệm xuất bản Giám đốc PHẠM THỊ MAI Chịu trách nhiệm nội dung

Tổng biên tập LÝ BÁ TOÀN

Biên tập: Phan Thị Ngọc Minh

Sửa bản in: TKN Nhuận Ân

Trình bày: Vũ Đình Trọng

Đối tác liên kết: PHẠM THỊ NGỌC DUNG

120/2 đừờng Phạm Văn Sáng, ấp 2, xã Bà Điểm, TP.HCM

In 1.000 cuốn, khổ 15cmx22cm tại TNHH SXTM DV in ấn Trâm Anh, 159/57 Bạch Đằng, P. Tân Sơn Hòa, TP.HCM.

Số XNĐKXB: 2980-2025/CXBIPH/52-108/HĐ, ngày 06 tháng 08, 2025

Số QĐXB của NXB: 430/QĐ-NXBHĐ cấp ngày 04 tháng 09, 2025.

In xong và nộp lưu chiểu năm 2025.

Mã số sách tiêu chuẩn quốc tế (ISBN) 978-632-01-0174-0

Mời đọc toàn sách HISTORY OF BUDDHIST EDUCATION IN SRI LANKA: REVIVAL OF THE BHIKKHUNI SANGHA với nhiều hình màu: 107-History_of_Buddhist_Education-Inside-20250905_VN.pdf

Bảo Anh Lạc Bookshelf

HISTORY OF BUDDHIST EDUCATION IN SRI LANKA: REVIVAL OF THE BHIKKHUNI SANGHA, Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong, Hồng Đức Publishing House, 2025.

Contents

Ven. Dr. K. Siri Sumedha Thero

Ven. Dr. Kalawatte Siri Sumedha Thero

Introduction

Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong

Introduction

1.1 Buddhism, Society, and Culture in Sri Lanka

1.2. Overview of the Chapter Objectives

Chapter 1: Introduction to Sri Lankan Buddhism

Chapter 2: Historical Overview of Buddhist

Chapter 3: Leading Buddhist Studies Universities

Chapter 4: Buddhist Forest Monasteries and

Chapter 5: The Restoration of the Bhikkhuni

Chapter 6: Contributions of Bhikkhunis to the Buddhist Community and Society

Chapter 7: Conclusion

Historical Overview

2.1.

Early Origins of Buddhist Education in Sri Lanka

2.2. Development Through Ancient, Medieval, and Colonial Periods

2.2.2. Medieval Period

2.2.3. Colonial Period

Leading Universities

3.1.

Buddhist and Pali University - Homagama

Academic Programs

Contact information:

3.2. Sri Lanka Bhikshu University, Anuradhapura

Overview:

Academic Programs

3.3. Nagananda international institute for Buddhist Studies

Overview:

Academic Programs

Overview:

Contact information:

3.5. Postgraduate institute of Pali and Buddhist Studies

Overview:

Academic Programs:

Contact information:

3.6. Detailed Contact Information for All Post- Graduation Institutes of Sri Lankan Universities

3.6.2. Buddhist and Pali University of Homagama

3.6.3. University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda

3.6.4. University of Colombo

Buddhist Forest Monasteries and Meditation Centers in Sri Lanka

4.1. Na Uyana Aranya

4.2. Nissarana Vanaya

4.3. Kanduboda Siyane Vipassana Meditation Centre

4.5. Labunoruwa Aranya Senasanaya, a Refuge for Spiritual Contemplation

5.1. Historical Overview

5.2. Education Programs and Curriculums in Prominent Bhikkhuni Education Centers

in Sri Lanka

5.3. Prominent Bhikkhuni Piriven (Sila Mata) in Sri Lanka

Academic Programs:

Contact information:

5.3.2. Parapaduwa Sila Matha Pirivena

Academic Programs:

Contact information:

5.3.3. Gothami Sila Matha Pirivena

Academic Programs:

Contact information:

5.3.4. Saṅghamittā Sila Matha Pirivena

Academic Programs:

Contact information:

Academic Programs:

Contact information:

5.3.6. Anula Sila Matha Pirivena

Academic Programs:

5.4. Temples of Dasa Sila Matha

Bodhimalu Aramaya Temple

5.5. Bhikkhuni Training Centers

5.5.1. Ayya Khema international Buddhist Mandir

Contact information:

5.5.2 Dambulla Bhikkhuni Training Centre

Contact information:

Academic Programs:

Contact information:

5.5.4.Sri Sunanda Bhikhuni Aramaya Temple

Contact information:

5.5.5. Khemaramaya Temple