Buddhism - A Historical and Practical Vision -
Buddhist Studies Conference, Delhi 1st July, 2023
Edited by Ven. Dr. Thich Hanh Chanh
& Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong
CONTENT
Welcome speech from the Sponsor Board 22
Chapter I: THE BODHISATTVA IDEAL
APPLIES IN THE REAL WORLD 29
- Mahāyāna Buddhism’s teachings and realistic political theory on leadership: exploring compatibility and integration – Thich Hanh Chanh 31
- Self-tranquillity techniques: from reality to Bodhisattva
journey - Bhikṣuṇī TN Tam Lac 50
- Embodiment of the Boddhisattva ideal in the life’s
journey - Bhikṣuṇī Thanh Niên Tue Man 65
- The importance of generating Bodhicitta on the path of
Bodhisattva - Bhikṣuṇī TN Thuan Nguyen 79
- Embodying the Bodhisattva ideal in daily lives
- Bhikṣuṇī TN Khiem Ton 90
- The Bodhisattva ideal in Nāgānanda work
– Bhikṣuṇī Thanh Niên Tinh Hi 109
- Applying skillful means in the fourth industrial revolution
(industry 4.0) - Bhikṣuṇī TN Dieu Hi 124
- The engaged spirit of the Bodhisattva in Vietnam Buddhist Sangha in the contemporary society
- Bhikṣuṇī TN An tri 136
Chapter II: GEOGRAPHICAL MAP OF MAHĀYĀNA BUDDHISM IN INDIA 147
Geography maps of Mahāyanā sūtras in India
- Bhikkhu Huyen Nhu and Bhikkhu Thien Tam 149
Chapter III: GANDHARA BUDDHISM 165
- Gandhara Buddhism - Bhikṣuṇī TN Phap Hue 167
- Ancient Gandhara: a land link to the rise of North Buddhism - Bhikkhu Nguyen Dao 179
- The artistic expressions of Buddhism
from Gandhara and Mathura - Bhikkhu Quang Giao 196
- Characteristics of the Buddha statues in Gandhara
Buddhism - Bhikṣuṇī TN Duc Tri 206
Chapter IV: THE REVIVAL MOVEMENTS OF BUDDHISM IN INDIA IN THE 20TH
AND 21ST CENTURIES 215
- Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar with social change
effects in India - Bhikkhu Thanh Tam 217
- A critical interpretation of Nibbāna from
Dr. Ambedkar’s perspective in Indian engaged
Buddhist movement - Bhikkhu Dong Dac 232
- Ambedkar and the Buddhist revival movement in India
- Bhikṣuṇī TN Thanh Nha 250
- The role of Alexander Cunningham in the Buddhist
revival movement in India - Bhikṣuṇī TN Hue Ngon 263
- Ideas for the revival of Indian Buddhism in the future
- Bhikṣuṇī TN Thanh Dieu 277
Chapter V: BUDDHIST-RELATED TOPICS
IN THE CONTEXT 295
- Buddhist philosophy has come to the American
universities - Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong 297
- The practical theory of impermanence law to improve
one’s own living life - Bhikkhu Minh Phu 332
- The buddha’s meaningful teachings on gratitude to one’s parents in Sutta Pitaka - Bhikṣuṇī TN Vien Nhuan 346
- The movement of Mahāyāna Buddhism and its spread
in India - Bhikṣuṇī TN Tue Anh 368
- Mahāyāna Buddhist monuments in Andhra Pradesh
- Bhikkhu Dat Huyen 386
Report on The Journey of The Pilgrimage, Charity, and
Buddhist Conferences In Korea, India, and Sri Lanka
The Gallery Pictures at Sharda University 423
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FOREWORD
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ur immense pleasure is to present to you this remarkable conference book – Buddhism: A Historical and Practical Vision. Inside these pages lies a stunning tapestry of wisdom created by the joint dedication and hard work of young Vietnamese Buddhist monks and nuns scholars who have explored the legacy of Buddhism in depth. From exploring the compatibility and integration of Mahāyāna Buddhism’s teachings with realistic political theory on leadership and the introduction Buddhist philosophy and the establishment and significance of Buddhist universities in the United States, each paper stands as a testament to the vibrant diversity and enduring relevance of Buddhist thought. Among the thought-provoking papers, you will discover insightful investigations into the practical theory of impermanence as a means to enhance one’s own living experience. Additionally, a critical interpretation of Nibbāna from Dr. Ambedkar’s perspective in the Indian Engaged Buddhist Movement sheds light on Buddhist philosophy’s profound social and transformative dimensions. The geographical maps of Mahāyāna Sūtras in India offer captivating insights into Buddhist scriptures’ historical and spatial dimensions, providing a deeper appreciation of the interplay between geography
and spiritual teachings.
Furthermore, the papers on Gandhara Buddhism unveil the artistic expressions and cultural significance of this ancient tradition while exploring its links to the rise of North Buddhism. The conference book also delves into the embodiment of the Bodhisattva ideal in various aspects of life, from personal growth and transformation to the engaged spirit of the Bodhisattva in contemporary society. Papers exploring the Buddhist revival movement in India, including the contributions of Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar and Alexander Cunningham, shed light on the efforts to rejuvenate Buddhism in its birthplace. As we navigate the intellectual landscapes presented within these pages, we encounter profound insights into the teachings of the Buddha, including the importance of generating bodhicitta on the path of the Bodhisattva and the Buddha’s teachings on gratitude to one’s parents. The significance of skillful means in the context of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Industry 4.0) and the role of ancient Mahāyāna Buddhist monuments in Andhra Pradesh are also explored deeply.
In-depth contributions to historical narratives, geographical discoveries, and revivalist movements have shaped Buddhism in India, both past and present. This serves as a testament to Buddhism’s enduring vibrant dynamism, with papers woven into its rich tapestry.
May these pages hold insights and revelations that lead us to a more compassionate, interconnected, and insightful world.
May “Buddhism: A Historical and Practical Vision,” the conference book, shine as a beacon of knowledge, illuminating the path to wisdom, and providing transformative inspiration to all who strive to deepen their comprehension of the Buddha’s teachings.
Ven. Dr. Thich Hanh Chanh
and Ven. Dr. Thich Nu Gioi Huong
***
INTRODUCTION
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ithin the realm of historical and applied perspectives, we board on an entertaining exploration over the pages
of this conference book - Buddhism: A Historical and Practical Vision and structure the book by the provided topics in Call for Papers into four groups and one remarkable group.
First group:
The Bodhisattva ideal applies in the real world.
Among the influential papers, called “Mahāyāna Buddhism’s Teachings and Realistic Political Theory on Leadership: Exploring Compatibility and Integration” by Thich Hanh Chanh digs into the possible compatibility and integration of Mahāyāna Buddhism’s teachings on leadership with the framework of Realistic Political Theory. Despite their straightforward approaches, this research sheds bright on the chance of harmonizing these two realms within the realm of the regime. By encouraging interdisciplinary dialogue and provoking benevolent reflection, in the article called “ Self
-Tranquillity Techniques: From Reality to Bodhisattva,” written by Thich Nu Tam Lac, the idea of tranquillity is explored as an assert of intellect and spirit that carries comfort, independence from anxiety and a deep sense of internal harmony and stability. The paper emphasizes that tranquillity also advantages human beings but additionally empowers practitioners to prolong this quiet assert to others, embodying the extreme essence of a Bodhisattva. The roam of a Bodhisattva also accomplishes internal serenity while actively giving, helping, and augmenting fearlessness and harmony to those around them. Carrying on our path, we encounter the challenging paper “ Embodiment of the Bodhisattva Ideal in Life’s Journey” by Thich Nu Tue Man. This article explores the Bodhisattva Ideal and its application to the roam of life, seeking liberation in both the exhibit and the coming within contemporary Buddhism. It digs into how Bodhisattva practitioners embody the Bodhicitta, after routines as an example, the Six Perfections(pāramitās), and nurturing the Four Infinite States of intellect and No Self in their pursuit of enlightenment. “The Importance of Generating Bodhicitta on the Path of Bodhisattva” by Thich Nu Thuan Nguyen highlights the profound significance of nurturing Bodhicitta, the intellect of enlightenment, on the path of the Bodhisattva in Mahāyāna Buddhism. Bodhicitta serves the deep aspiration to accomplish Buddhahood for the profit of all sentient beings, encompassing both wisdom and compassion. It defines the extreme essence of a bodhisattva and represents a guiding force behind their selfless actions. Next, we investigate the insightful paper “Embodying the Bodhisattva Ideal in Daily Lives,” authored by Thich Nu Khiem Ton. This paper inspects the relevance of the Bodhisattva Ideal in modern life within the
Mahāyāna sect of Buddhism and enquires how human beings can embody this perfect in their daily experiences, nurturing kindness and altruism. It explores the practical implementation of the Bodhisattva path and inspects its part in addressing humanitarian crises, for example, environmental problems, social inequality, and domestic violence. Furthermore, the author offers practical tips and techniques for growing human qualities like empathy, kindness, and generosity, empowering individuals to embody the Bodhisattva ideal in their daily lives and actively contributing to addressing societal challenges. Thich Nu Tinh Hy carries the Bodhisattva from the realms of average life to the dramatic juncture with the presentation of the article “The Bodhisattva Ideal in Nāgānanda’s work. “ This article explores the depiction of the Bodhisattva perfectly in the antique Indian drama “Nāgānanda” or “Joy of the Serpents. “ The play highlights crucial facets of the Bodhisattva perfect over the activities in Jīmūtavāhana, attracting parallels to the narrative of Gautama Buddha’s former life narratives. By digging into the Bodhisattva perfectly within this dramatic work, the paper sheds bright on the compassionate and selfless nature of bodhisattvas, emphasizing their unwavering commitment to the welfare of other people. As we advance, Thich Nu Dieu Tri presents us with the challenging article “ Applying Skillful Means in the Fourth Industrial Revolution ”. This paper inspects the relevance of Buddhism and the application of skillful means in the context of the fourth industrial revolution, also called Industry 4. 0. It explores how the idea of skillful means, as undertaken by Bodhisattvas, finds resonance in modern life and addresses the opportunities, challenges, and solutions connected with unifying the Bodhisattva ideals into our ever-evolving globe. Lastly, we encounter the insightful contribution of Thich Nu An Tri in the paper titled “The Engaged Spirit of the Bodhisattva in Vietnam Buddhist Sangha in the Contemporary Society.” This paper highlights the engaged spirit of the Vietnam Buddhist Sangha, extending beyond the activities of monks and nuns to include the active involvement of Buddhist laymen and women in various social endeavors. This engagement encompasses a wide range of charitable activities, disaster relief efforts, and assistance provided to the less fortunate. It exemplifies the profound impact and relevance of the Bodhisattva ideals in our contemporary society.
Second group:
Geographical map of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India.
Our focus now shifts to the intriguing subject of the Mahāyāna Buddhism geographical maps in India in the realm of Mahāyāna Buddhism’s geographical exploration. It is significant even though only one paper has been submitted for this category. Titled “Geography Maps of Mahāyāna Sūtras in India”, the paper by Thich Huyen Nhu and Thich Thien Tam delves into the significance profound of Mahāyāna sūtras in the development of Buddhism and their geographic relevance. It explores the influence of these sūtras on Buddhist practices, ideologies, and the historical and philosophical contexts in which Buddhism spread. Additionally, the application of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and geography maps of Mahāyāna sūtras in India is investigated to gain insight into the geographical distribution of Mahāyāna Buddhist sites and the pilgrimage routes that interconnected them.
Third group: Gandhara Buddhism
We move on to the third group of topics, which includes linguistics, history, philosophy, sculpture, and art in the Gandhara Buddhist tradition. A wide range of perspectives on this distinctive school of Buddhism is presented in this category. By Thich Nu Phap Hue, the study commences with a paper on Gandhara Buddhism, delving into the artistry, experiences, design, and writing of Gandhara Buddhism. It unveils insight into the distinctive qualities of this tradition that emerged in the first century CE. Focusing on the rich heritage of Gandhara Buddhism, this paper emphasizes its historical, artistic, and literary aspects. Thich Nguyen Dao adds to this class with his paper “Ancient Gandhara: A land link to the Rise of North Buddhism.” The significance of the Gandhara region in the growth and spread of Mahāyāna Buddhism, particularly in relation to North Buddhism, is the primary focus of this paper. It demonstrates how important well-known commentators like Vasumitra, Lokaksema, Kumralta, Vasubandhu, and Asanga were to the growth of Buddhism in Gandhara. Also, it features the three wonderful times of Buddhism in the locale, which added to the spread of Buddhism to adjoining regions and the foundation of Northern Buddhism or Mahāyāna Buddhism. The paper “The Artistic Expression of Buddhism from Gandhara and Mathura” by Thich Quang Giao draws our attention to the artistic manifestations of Gandhara Buddhism. The artistic manifestations of Buddhism that originated in the Indian subcontinent’s Gandhara and Mathura are the subject of this article. It looks at the distinctive artistic styles and influences that developed in ancient India’s important Buddhist art centers. The paper discusses how Gandhara and Mathura created distinct and captivating artistic expressions by incorporating various cultural and artistic influences, such as indigenous Indian, Hellenistic, and Indian traditions. At long last, we investigate the paper by Thich Nu Duc Tri named “ Characteristics of the Buddha Statues in Gandhara Buddhism ”. The introduction, history, geography, and characteristics of the Gandhara Style are all covered in this comprehensive paper, focusing on how it influenced Buddhist sculpture and art. The carving of Buddha statues, characterized by figures with classical facial features like small mouths, slim noses, crisp intersections of brow and eyes, and wavy hair, is known to have been influenced by the Gandhara Art school. The fusion of Greek-inspired elements and Buddhist concepts in these idealized Buddha depictions results in captivating sculptures. This assortment of papers offers a multi- layered investigation of Gandhara Buddhism, enveloping its set of experiences, craftsmanship, theory, and social effect. These papers comprehensively comprehend the significance and richness of Gandhara Buddhism through linguistic analysis, historical research, philosophical insights, and artistic examinations.
Fourth group:
The revival movements of Buddhism in India in the 20th and 21st centuries
The fourth subject of the gathering centers around the recovery developments of Buddhism in India in the 20th and 21st centuries. It digs into the influential figures, essential understandings, verifiable commitments, and future desires connected with the resurgence of Buddhism in India. This category discusses the efforts made to revive Buddhism’s presence in the country and the transformative power of Buddhism as a social change agent through five papers. Thich Thanh Tam’s first paper, “Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar with Social Change Effects in India,” examines Dr. Ambedkar’s remarkable efforts and influence on the cultural significance and socially engaged Buddhism. Dr. Ambedkar, motivated by his insight and vision, sparked a revolution in India that resulted in real-world social change. The paper emphasizes the transformative power of his work in driving significant social changes, highlighting his numerous roles and enduring significance as a beacon of hope. Phan, Anh Duoc examines Dr. Ambedkar’s interpretation of Nibbana in “A Critical Interpretation on Nibbāna from Dr. Ambedkar’s Perspective in Indian Engaged Buddhist Movement.” Drawing on Dr. Ambedkar’s book “The Buddha and His Dhamma,” the paper dissects his perspectives on edification, stressing the foundation of a “realm of equity on the planet” and the easing of experiencing with regard to cultural foul play. It draws attention to how Dr. Ambedkar’s interpretation and the teachings of Buddha differ in their emphasis on alleviating suffering and fostering happiness. The third paper, “Ambedkar and the Buddhist Revival Movement in India,” by Thich Nu Thanh Nha, explores the revival of Buddhism in India and the tremendous position played by Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar. The paper examines the historical origins of Buddhism in India and the subsequent decline of the culture. Driven by his dedication to social reform, Dr. Ambedkar played a pivotal role in resurrecting and advancing Buddhism in India to cope with social inequalities and foster a greater equitable society. The paper focuses on his life and contributions to the resurgence of Buddhism in the country.
“The Role of Alexander Cunningham in the Buddhist Revival Movement in India” by Thich Nu Hue Ngon examines Alexander Cunningham’s contribution to the late 19th century AD Buddhist revival movement in India. Cunningham’s devotion to the recovery and protection of Buddhism in India is recognized, especially his endeavors in distinguishing and archiving critical Buddhist locales and curios. His work extended the comprehension of India’s rich Buddhist legacy and assumed a critical part in advancing the country’s review, conservation, and enthusiasm for Buddhism. At last, “ Ideas for the Revival of Indian Buddhism in the Future” by Thich Nu Dieu Hoc tends to the author’s yearning and wistfulness for the renewal of Indian Buddhism in its country. The paper provides ideas and suggestions for revitalizing Indian Buddhism through research and survey, focusing on those who follow the bodhisattva path.
By highlighting the efforts, interpretations, historical contributions, and future aspirations of individuals and communities dedicated to reestablishing Buddhism’s presence in the country, these papers shed light on Buddhism’s revival movements in India. They encourage discussion, contemplation, and action toward Buddhism’s ongoing development and revitalization in the Indian context.
Remarkable group:
The fifth section of the conference book is devoted to Buddhist- related topics in the context of the United States, including the practical application of impermanence law, the teachings on gratitude toward one’s parents, the movement and spread of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India, the presence of Mahāyāna Buddhist monuments in Andhra Pradesh, and other related topics. In the primary paper, “Buddhist Philosophy has come to American Universities ” by Thich Nu Gioi Huong, the creator presents Buddhist-enlivened colleges that bring Buddhist Philosophy to the US. These universities, like Naropa, the University of the West, Soka, and Dharma Realm Buddhist University, offer degrees in various fields with a strong focus on Buddhist studies. The mission of these Asian monasteries, which combine spiritual and professional education, is to assist individuals in realizing their inherent Buddha nature. The worth of Buddhist-based schooling is perceived in current American culture as advancing information and enacting astuteness while stressing sympathy and understanding throughout everyday life. The practical application of the theory of impermanence in enhancing one’s lifestyle is the subject of Thich Minh Phu’s paper, “The practical theory of impermanence law to improve one’s own living life.” It examines impermanence’s spiritual and philosophical foundations and highlights its significance in various worldviews and belief systems. In order to harness the transformative power of impermanence and cultivate mindfulness, resilience, and a deeper appreciation for the present moment, the paper offers practical strategies, techniques, or mindfulness practices that individuals can incorporate into their lives. Thich Nu Vien Nhuan’s “The Buddha’s Meaningful Teachings on Gratitude to One’s Parents in Sutta” discusses the significance of being grateful to one’s parents, as the Buddha emphasized in the Sutta Pitaka. The paper features the uncommonness of certifiable appreciation today and investigates the meaning of offering appreciation and thanks to one’s folks. The Buddha emphasized that it is a moral obligation and a healthy practice to repay the kindness and compassion shown by one’s parents, praising those who possess gratitude as individuals of integrity and civility. “The Movement of Mahāyāna Buddhism and Its Spread in India,” written by Thich Nu Tue Anh, looks at how Mahāyāna Buddhism moved and spread in India over more than two thousand years. Mahāyāna Buddhism, rooted in South India, rose to prominence thanks to influential masters like Nāgārjuna, Aśvaghoṣa, Asaṅga, and Vasubandhu. The paper investigates the verifiable advancement of Mahāyāna Buddhism, its commitments to social assistance and human freedom, and its persevering importance in Indian society and beyond. The final paper in this category, written by Thich Dat Huyen and titled “ Mahāyāna Buddhist Monuments in Andhra Pradesh,” investigates the presence and influence of Mahāyāna Buddhism in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. The study examines Buddhism in Andhra Pradesh from the Middle Mauryan Empire to the sixth century
A.D. Mahasanghika subsects made significant contributions to the development of the religion. Conspicuous Mahāyāna schools, like Dhanyakataka and Nagarjunakond, arose in the area. Famous Acharyas like Nāgārjuna, Āryadeva, Dinnaga, Asanga, and Vasubandhu significantly impacted the development of Mahāyāna Buddhist thought and philosophy. In addition, the paper emphasizes the presence of Buddhist inscriptions and monuments in Andhra Pradesh as evidence of the region’s Buddhist past.
These many different subjects in this conference shed light on how Buddhism is still relevant today in various contexts and how it affects people and societies. By reading these papers, conference attendees can comprehensively understand Buddhism in various settings, including India and the United States. The points covered shed light on the pertinence of Buddhist instruction, the reasonable utilization of Buddhist standards, the significance of appreciation, and the verifiable turn of events and persevering through the meaning of Mahāyāna Buddhism. These commitments give significant experiences and add to a more noteworthy comprehension of Buddhism’s effect on people and social orders.
Conclusion This gathering fills in as a stage for young Vietnamese Buddhist monks and nuns Research Scholars to exchange information, bits of knowledge, and encounters connected with Buddhism. It encourages dialogue and investigates its potential for addressing contemporary challenges and promoting well-being and harmony while fostering a deeper appreciation for Buddhism’s teachings, history, art, and social contributions. As the conference ends, it is clear that Buddhism is still a vibrant and active tradition that offers profound wisdom and helpful advice for people and societies. The papers introduced in this gathering demonstrate the persevering significance of Buddhism and its ability to rouse and change lives. In keeping with the conference’s theme, may our knowledge of Buddhism grow and inspire us to cultivate more wisdom, compassion, and peace in our lives and the world through research and dissemination.
Ven. Dr. Thich Hanh Chanh
and Ven. Dr. Thich Nu Gioi Huong
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OPENING REMARKS
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espected Venerable Dr. Thich Hanh Chanh, chairperson
of the conference.
Respected Venerable Dr. Thich Nu Gioi Huong, co-chairperson of the conference and the Abbess of Huong Sen Temple, California, USA.
Dear Dharma friends and practitioners,
We greet you with warm hearts at this Buddhism conference, where we honor ancient teachings that continue to shape our modern world. For many centuries, Buddhism has been one of the most influential religions, with countless ethical philosophies and social guidance guiding spiritual journeys across diverse cultures worldwide. We, the Buddhist monks & nuns in the role of the monastery and Buddhist Studies Research Scholars in the duty of universities, gather today from distant corners around India to share specific knowledge and practical experiences.
In addition, we aim to create an environment for deep learning about Buddhism’s past, giving it context within modern-day social systems. Expert speakers scheduled throughout today - teach with individuals like yourselves – not data or cataloged appeal: leading discussions exploring topics suchlike Bodhisattva’s compassion & wisdom and showing how Buddhist traditions still impact contemporary society, especially art plus culture remaining steadfast since its creation in India millennia ago. Join us as we circle on significant thoughts imbued with hope at work toward enlightenment - something Buddhists know so well.
I sincerely desire this assembly to serve as a wellspring of motivation, enlightenment, and expansion for each individual present. With utmost gratitude, I thank you for our valuable time together. May our association be enriching and productive in every possible way. This conclusion will summarize the importance of coming together to learn and grow.
Conference Organizing Committee of Delhi Buddhist Studies Conference July 1, 2023
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WELCOME SPEECH FROM THE SPONSOR BOARD
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Namo Shakyamuni Buddha
Dear Venerable Dr. Thich Hanh Chanh, Head of the
Representative Committee of Vietnamese Student
Monks and Nuns in India,
Dear all Venerable Bhikkhus, Bhikṣuṇīs studying abroad at
many Universities in India,
First of all, on behalf of the Patronage Committee of Huong Sen Temple, we send our respectful and cordial greetings to Venerable Dr. Thich Hanh Chanh and all Monastics present here.
Dear All,
Time passed quickly. In February 2023, I had the opportunity to have a talk with Venerable Dr. Thich Hanh Chanh about the Buddhist seminar organized by the Representative Board of Vietnamese student monatics in association with Huong Sen Temple, USA. Four months have passed, and today, July 1, 2023, is the time to present the seminar and offer two English- Vietnamese books, Phật Giáo - Tầm Nhìn Lịch Sử và Thực Hành and Buddhism - A Historical and Practical Vision. This is the beautiful result from our effort for the Buddhist conference.
With the spirit of equality, science, and respect, we selected twenty-three essays for the book: Buddhism - A Historical and Practical Vision. Today, we are offering the books to you which are printed in Delhi; we are also applying for printing licenses in Vietnam and the United States. At the same time, we will also post them on the website, Facebook Huong Sen, Đạo Phật Ngày Nay, Trang Nhà Quảng Đức, Hoa Vô Ưu and other electronic websites for dissemination.
This large volume has about 400 pages which encapsulates all the thoughts of Vietnamese students who are studying Buddhism from afar, are interested in the future of Buddhism, and use words to describe their profound visions on Buddhist wisdom in daily spiritual life.
There is a saying: “Books are treasures that have given us wisdom and have turned us into knowledgeable, well-educated, understanding, and selfless people.” Yes, it is true! The book as an existence, a spiritual value, an intellectual memory, and an inspirational treasure in the Buddhist literary world. It creates the source the real value of Buddhism in all times and places. This is very necessary for all of us, especially students and researches.
Dear all my sisters and brothers in Dharma,
As an alumnus of the University of Delhi, my heart always goes to Delhi, to India and to the monastics studying abroad who are going through the difficult and challenging times. Their patience and strength of their studies is the most we have ever seen. A little candy from far away that I send to monastics is also very precious. The financial support for the cost of studying is also precious, but perhaps it is more precious if I create an opportunity for you to do good for intellectuals—to brainstorm and contribute your intellectual ideas to the Buddhist society today and in the future. That’s what I aim for and I thank the Venerable Dr. Thich Hanh Chanh and the monks and nuns for sharing the same thought with us, to join our Sponsoring Committee to conduct this dedication conference.
The rewards are only means in the world of relativity. Holding a pen and writing is a tool for human intelligence. Engaging in writing, thinking, reflect about the Buddhist vision, those moments are a really great success for all the writers in this conference and it is also a great reward that all of you has repaid to our sponsors.
We know that monks and nuns are very busy studying, taking exams, writing dissertations... and now they are burdened with writing more essays for the conference. Thank you very much for the sacrifice of your precious time for this gathering. Thank you to Bhikṣuṇī Vien Nhuan, Bhikṣuṇī Duc Tri and the Sponsors Committee to prepare books and gifts for the conference. Thank you to Bhikkhu Huyen Nhu, Bhikkhu Minh Phu, Bhikkhu Van Thien, Bhikkhu Nguyen Dao and other nuns who helped with communication, catering and many other things for the successful conference. And especially, lastly thanking Venerable Dr. Thích Hanh Chanh, head of the organizing committee, co-chair of the seminar. You represented the organizers to contact monks and nuns, receive papers, edit papers, grade papers, and also design and print books to be in time on the day of the conference. Without your enthusiasm, sacrifice and wisdom, this conference would not be as successful as it is now. Sincere gratitude for all the sacrifices and contributions of each person who is named or anonymous. Sincerely grateful for the meeting in this meaningful conference. May we always be side by side today or forever in the future. We will support one another in noble and respect in the dharma relationship for serving human life.
Wishing Venerable Dr. Thich Hanh Chanh and the student monastics always promote your inherent Buddha nature and succeed in every step on the way.
May all donors for this conference in Delhi be blessed with good health, great success, and always be the strong sponsors for Three Jewels to be presented forever in this world.
Namo The Merit Forest Bodhisattva Mahasattva.
University of Delhi, July 1, 2023
On behalf of the Patronage Committee
of Huong Sen Temple,
Yours sincerely,
Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong
VOTES FOR THANKS
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ear respected Ven. Dr. Thich Nu Gioi Huong, the co-
chairperson of the conference, and the Abbess of Huong Sen Temple, California, USA, and her laypeople
Dear Dharma friends,
First of all, Let me have words from the heart to the final votes
for thanks of this conference.
We are profoundly grateful to the kind and visionary sponsors who have made this Buddhist Studies Conference an extraordinary reality. Set amidst the sacred landscape of India and in the main hall of the Mahabodhi temple, this conference serves as a sanctuary for exchanging knowledge and practical experiences among dedicated Vietnamese Buddhist monks and nuns pursuing academic careers in Indian universities, illuminating the path of wisdom and compassion. Our most profound appreciation extends to the exceptional nun Ven. Dr. Thich Nu Gioi Huong, the co- chairperson and a generous sponsor of the conference, and her laypeople from Huong Sen Temple, California, USA, whose unwavering support has propelled this conference to new heights.
With boundless gratitude, we acknowledge the immeasurable impact of our sponsors, whose generosity has opened the doors to profound exploration and understanding. Their benevolence has paved the way for meaningful connections, allowing us to forge new paths in studying Buddhism. Through their remarkable support, we are empowered to unravel the depths of Buddhist wisdom, shedding light on its relevance in our modern world.
Their radiant spirits and compassionate hearts serve as a testament to the transformative power of Buddhist teachings, illuminating the path to enlightenment for the benefit of all beings.
As a conference chairperson, I offer my heartfelt appreciation to these diligent and hard-working Dharma friends who overcome their busy schedules for examinations and writing theses. I salute your dedicated spirit and very proud of you.
I sincerely hope this conference has initiated constructive dialogues and paved the way for innovative future research in Buddhist studies. Lastly, a big thank you to everyone who contributed towards realizing the success of the Buddhist Studies Conference 2023. Thank you, and see you again in the near future.
Conference Organizing Committee of Delhi Buddhist Studies Conference July 1, 2023.
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CHAPTER I
THE BODHISATTVA IDEAL APPLIES IN THE REAL WORLD
MAHAYANA BUDDHISM’S TEACHINGS AND REALISTIC POLITICAL THEORY ON LEADERSHIP: EXPLORING COMPATIBILITY AND INTEGRATION
Dr. Ha, Thanh Liem aka Thich Hanh Chanh
Sharda University
E-mail: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
Delhi Buddhist Studies Conference Dated: July 1st, 2023.
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Abstract
ahāyāna Buddhism is a spiritual tradition that imparts
wisdom on how to lead a compassionate and mindful life. Realistic political theory is a philosophical framework that aims to elucidate the riddles surrounding political power and governance, as well as the intricate correlation between the state and individuals. These two approaches to leadership may seem fairly distinct at first glance but exploring their compatibility and integration can shed bright on the possibility of a more compassionate and ethical advance to government. This paper will provoke your thoughts as we explore how Mahāyāna Buddhism’s principles on leadership are compatible and can be integrated with realistic political theory.
Keywords: Mahāyāna buddhism, realistic politics theory,
leadership, compatibility
General Introduction
The intersection leadership of Mahāyāna Buddhism and Realistic Politics Theory may not seem to be readily clear. However, a closer examination of the idea of interdependence in Mahāyāna Buddhism discloses the possibility of sociological implications. This conception posits that all phenomena happen in dependence upon other phenomena, and no phenomena exist independently. When applied to human society, it can provide insight into the interdependence of diverse social structures and bonds. Realistic Politics Theory may attract this conception to investigate the tangled interconnectedness of distinct social institutions and groups, and to study the ways whereat alterations in one place of society can have reverberating effects on other areas.
Realistic Politics Theory, a philosophical framework that seeks to comprehend political power, governance, and the relationship between the assert and individuals, can be silently complicated in its advance. It recognizes that people have a commonplace disposition towards self-interest, that links to chaos and instability without a scheme of governance that is able to check and equilibrium these self-interests. Mahāyāna Buddhism, on the other hand, is a spiritual tradition that provides advice on existing a compassionate and mindful life, that can be silent deep, and demanding to grasp.
At first glance, these two frameworks may seem incompatible because of their clear differences. Nevertheless, after closer investigation, we can find current ground in their advance to cogent leadership. Realistic political theory acknowledges the aim of a healthy and cogent leader who can make tough decisions for the better excellent. Similarly, Mahāyāna Buddhism’s teachings emphasize the significance of a smart and compassionate leader who can drive human beings toward enlightenment. To integrate these apparently divergent perspectives, one can peer the significance of leadership qualities as an example empathy, self-awareness, and a willingness to hear.
When exploring the connections between Mahāyāna Buddhism and politics, the responsibility of leadership is a significant factor to think about. Mahāyāna Buddhist teachings emphasize the significance of ethical and compassionate leadership as a intends of encouraging social concord and lowering suffering. For example, the Bodhisattva ideal, that is central to Mahāyāna Buddhism, motivates human beings to cultivate compassion and wisdom for the purpose of profiting all beings. This perfect could be applied to leadership, recommending that leaders have to prioritize the well- being of all people, not just their own passions. That is the common ground for the aims of this paper for exploring the compatibility and integration of Mahāyāna Buddhism and Realistic Politics on leadership.
Definition
Definition of Mahāyāna Buddhism
This brief introduction will survey the motives why Mahāyāna Buddhism emerged, the position of Sūtras in Mahāyāna Buddhism, and the major factors that contributed to its success in spreading rapidly in India and beyond.
Mahāyāna Buddhism is a major sect of Buddhism that emerged in India around the 1st century BCE and spread throughout Asia, including China, Tibet, Japan, and Vietnam (Harvey, 2013, p. 3). This Buddhist sect is a shape of Buddhism that emphasizes the bodhisattva perfect and other doctrines, which is the aspiration to reap enlightenment for the gain of all sentient beings.
The doctrines of Mahāyāna Buddhism are very profound in meaning and flexible in implementation. The more practical, the more understanding that is Mahāyāna Buddhism. These profound and flexible doctrines lead Mahāyāna Buddhists to be compatible with different cultures and various political environments. Mahāyāna Buddhism additionally emphasizes the interconnectedness of all phenomena and the view that all beings have the possibility of enlightenment. It means that the teachings of Mahāyāna Buddhism are serving the mass.
One of the predominant motives why Mahāyāna Buddhism emerged became the choice to increase the scope of Buddhism was the monastic community consisting of lay practitioners. Keown (2013) states that Mahāyāna Buddhism changed as a response to the converting social and political conditions in India throughout the first century CE, which created a requirement for a more inclusive and available shape of Buddhism. Mahāyāna Buddhism presented lay practitioners with a route to enlightenment through the bodhisattva ideal, which become visible as greater on hand and relevant to their daily lives than the austere practices of the monastic community (p.104).
Another core feature of Mahāyāna Buddhism is the big quantity of Sūtras that it produced. Sūtras are discourses attributed to the Buddha and his disciples, and they serve as the primary source of Buddhist teachings. According to Harvey (2012), the Mahāyāna Sūtras are characterized by their profound and flexible teachings, which provide an extensive range of practices and methods for attaining enlightenment. The Mahāyāna Sūtras also emphasize the significance of compassion and information, that are visible as critical characteristics for the bodhisattva direction (p.305).
The success of Mahāyāna Buddhism in spreading at some stage in India and beyond can be attributed to numerous elements. One of the key factors was the patronage of wealthy and powerful people, who supplied monetary and political guidance to the Buddhist network. Williams and Tribe (2000) note that the Mauryan emperor Ashoka was a prime patron of Buddhism, and his aid helped to set up Buddhism as a distinguished faith in India. Furthermore, the Gupta dynasty in the 5th and sixth centuries CE supplied patronage to the Buddhist community, which allowed for the construction of tricky Buddhist monuments and establishments (p.246).
An additional issue that contributed to the unfolding of Mahāyāna Buddhism turned into the improvement of a network of monasteries and universities. Dutt (2002) points out that Mahāyāna Buddhism flourished in India at some stage in the 5th and sixth centuries CE, while the awesome universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila had been hooked up. These establishments attracted scholars, and college students from all over India and beyond, and they served as centers for gaining knowledge of and innovation in Buddhist philosophy and practice (p. 103).
Mahāyāna Buddhism additionally benefited from the advancements of trade and commerce in India, which led to the spread of Buddhism along the trade routes to other countries such as China, Vietnam, Korea, and Japan. Missionaries and scholars traveled along these routes and shared Buddhist teachings with the local people, guiding the establishment of Buddhist communities in these regions (Harvey, 2012, p. 305).
In conclusion, the speedy spread of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India and beyond could be attributed to numerous factors, comprising the assistance of influential patrons, the tireless efforts of the intellectual clergy in the growth of available texts and practices, creation of monasteries and universities, the emphasis on the function of the laity, the development of trade and commerce, etc. and the growth of new devout routines and rituals. These influences assisted to make Mahāyāna Buddhism more available and enchanting to a wider audience and played a crucial role in its accomplishment as a main global religion till today. With these thoughts in mind, we go the next step to see What Mahāyāna Buddhism has in leadership and how it can be corporate with other factors of society, in this case, that is realistic politics theory.
Definition of Realistic Political Theory
Realistic Political Theory is a branch of political philosophy that seeks to comprehend the dynamics of power and self-interest in politics. At its core, it acknowledges that individuals and nations are encouraged by self-interest and that this guide for power is an ascertained and commonplace component of the human condition.
The earliest expression of the Realistic Political Theory view is that power is the currency of politics and that self-interest drives the actions of individuals and nations. Thucydides (1954), the ancient Greek historian described that the interest of the stronger is consistently attended to prior to that of the weaker (Thucydides, the past of the Peloponnesian War, notebook V, Chapter 89, p.400).
Realistic Political Theory holds that power is the currency of politics, and those who have it are in the optimum situation to impact the course of events. Henry Kissinger (1994) demonstrates that the Realistic Political Theory emphasizes the importance of power in authority and he continues to argue that nations that lack power are vulnerable to assault and that a hearty defense is essential for survival in the international arena (p.28).
It’s a theory that emphasizes the significance of practical and
pragmatic decision-making, preferably summary idealism.
In essence, Realistic Political Theory is a philosophy that recognizes the realities of the world we exist in, and seeks to navigate it so. It acknowledges the inherent complexity of politics and the need for leaders to be adaptable and strategic for the purpose of accomplishing their objectives, over-concentration on power, and self-interest. Realistic Political Theory offers a framework for knowledge of the activities of individuals, groups, and nations in the political sphere. It’s a philosophy that obstacles us to opposing the repeatedly disorganized and unpredictable nature of politics and discovering methods to get our aims within these complicated and dynamic surroundings.
Realistic Political Theory additionally emphasizes the need for leaders to be adaptable and bendy for the purpose of accomplishing their objectives in the complicated and unpredictable globe of government. As Henry Kissinger (1994) writes in Diplomacy, “ in a world of rapid and unforeseeable change, successful statesmanship demands a constant awareness of the impact of events and a willingness to adjust course without sacrificing one’s objectives “(p. 12). This citation highlights the significance of strategic believing and the aptitude to make fast decisions in response to modifying circumstances that are central tenets of Realistic Political Theory.
In the meantime, the political philosopher Hans Morgenthau (1948) reflects the Realistic Political Theory view that practical considerations should take priority over abstract ethical principles in politics. Morgenthau argues that while moral values are important, they must be balanced against the realities of the world we live in (p.4). On the other side, Realistic Political Theory concentrates on the practical considerations of politics. whereas ethical and moral values are important, Realistic Political Theory argues that they need to be balanced against the realities of the world we exist in. As Morgenthau (1948) notes, “the realist is aware of the moral significance of political action [...] but he is not inclined to judge the success of his actions by abstract ethical standards” (p.4). This citation underscores the need for leaders to make challenging decisions and take actions that is likely to be morally elusive for the purpose of accomplishing their aims.
In conclusion, Realistic Political Theory obstacles us to challenging the complexities and uncertainties of politics and discovering methods to navigate this dynamic and unpredictable arena. It reminds us that the pursuit of power is a basic aspect of politics, but additionally underscores the need for leaders to be pragmatic and adaptable for the purpose of following in these demanding surroundings.
Leadership
Mahāyāna Buddhism Leadership
A leader who is mindful of their actions and their effect on other people can advert belief and self-assurance in their leadership. Mahāyāna Buddhism’s teachings can additionally suggest insights into the function of leadership in encouraging social equality and fairness. The teachings emphasize the significance of sympathy towards all beings and they have to lower suffering in the universe. In this regard, leadership can play a crucial in encouraging social equality and parity by addressing structural inequalities and encouraging policies that prioritize the necessitates of disadvantaged groups.
The Brahmajāla Sūtra teaches that ethical behavior is crucial for convincing leadership and that it entails behaving in compliance with the principles of the Ten Virtues and the Ten Precepts (The Brahmajāla Sūtra, Chapter 34) . This includes refraining from injurious actions, nurturing determined qualities as an example altruism and compassion, and working for the profit of all beings.
Mahāyāna Buddhism provides a crisp and original perspective
on leadership that prioritizes wisdom, compassion, and altruism.
One Mahāyāna Sūtra that emphasizes the significance of compassion in leadership is the Lotus Sūtra. In this Sūtra, the Buddha is portrayed as a compassionate leader who guides his followers towards enlightenment over his teachings and instance. The Lotus Sūtra additionally emphasizes the significance of leaders who are compassionate and who work for the welfare of all sentient beings. (Lopez, 2001.p.29).
Instead of seeking power and prestige, leadership in Mahāyāna Buddhism based on the Bodhisattva doctrine is observed as its services to others, grounded in the faith that the final goal of spiritual exercise is to accomplish enlightenment not just for oneself, but for all sentient beings. Another key principle of leadership in Mahāyāna Buddhism is the idea of skillful means, also called upāya. It entails the aptitude to adapt to distinct human beings and situations, creatively and flexibly tailoring one’s advance in order to get the maximal profit for all entailed.
This principle acknowledges the assortment of individuals and situations and recognizes that persuasive leadership needs resilience and ingenuity. One more basic principle of leadership in Mahāyāna Buddhism is ethical behavior. According to He, H., & Zhu, M. (2016), ethical behavior is crucial for cogent leadership, and it entails adhering to the principles of the Eightfold Path. This includes refraining from injurious actions, nurturing determined qualities as an example altruism and compassion, and working for the profit of all sentient beings (pp.333-344).
Mahāyāna Buddhism additionally emphasizes the significance of nurturing wisdom and compassion in leadership. Wisdom entails an exhaustive familiarity with the character of reality, whereas compassion entails absolute care for the welfare of other people. These two qualities are complementary and persuasive and leadership in Mahāyāna Buddhism needs the growth of both. Overall, the principles of leadership in Mahāyāna Buddhism are centered around the concepts of Bodhisattva, skillful means, ethical conduct, and the cultivation of wisdom and compassion. By embodying these principles in their leadership, Mahāyāna Buddhists strive to generate a more agreeable and compassionate society for all sentient beings.
The advantage of Mahāyāna Buddhism leadership is rooted in the faith that leadership is not about personalized gain, but rather about assisting other people and working towards the betterment of all.
Ultimately, the principles of leadership in Mahāyāna Buddhism emphasize the Bodhisattva ideal- the significance of representing others, adapting to distinct situations with skillful means, acting ethically, and nurturing wisdom and compassion. These principles advert a more in agreement and compassionate society for all beings
Realistic Political Theory principles in leadership
Realistic Political Theory emphasizes the significance of leadership in navigating the complexities and uncertainties of the political world. This theory certifies that politics is a messy and unpredictable arena, where there are few easy answers or clear-cut solutions.
Therefore, persuasive leadership is crucial in administrating these obstacles and accomplishing political aims. In this context, Realistic Political Theory highlights multiple core principles of leadership that are vital to accomplishment in the political sphere.
Pragmatism: Pragmatism is the view that leaders need to concentrate on practical considerations and adapt their advances to altering circumstances for the purpose of accomplishing their aims. As Henry Kissinger (1994) notes in his book Diplomacy, “in a world of rapid and unforeseeable change, successful statesmanship demands a constant awareness of the impact of events and a willingness to adjust course without sacrificing one’s objectives “( p. 12). This citation highlights the significance of strategic believing and the aptitude to make fast decisions in response to altering circumstances. That is one of the central dogmas of Realistic Political Theory leadership principles.
Strategic Thinking: An extra crucial principle of leadership in Realistic Political Theory is strategic thinking. Strategic thinking is the aptitude to perceive the larger character and await the opportunity to the possible results of distinct courses of action. As Robert Greene (1998) writes in The 48 Laws of Power, “ never let yourself get lost in the details of your work, for it is the big picture that matters most “(p.152). This quotation underscores the need for leaders to concentrate on the broader implications of their decisions and to take an extended interface of their aims.
Flexibility: Flexibility is a fundamental principle of leadership in Realistic Political Theory. Leaders need to be capable to adapt their advance to modifying circumstances and begin to new thoughts and perspectives. As Kissinger (1994) notes, “Flexibility is the key to effective leadership in a world that is constantly changing” (p.12). This citation highlights the significance of being unprejudiced and willing to alter course when appropriate.
Realism: Realism is an essential principle of leadership in Realistic Political Theory. Realism is the view that leaders need to know about the limitations of their power and the realities of the world whereat they manage as Hans Morgenthau (1948) writes in Politics Among Nations, “political realism...assumes that the struggle for power is universal in time and space and is an undeniable fact of experience” (p.3). This citation highlights the significance of recognizing the function of power in government and the have to be realistic about what could be accomplished.
Machiavellianism1: Finally, Machiavellianism is the principle of leadership in Realistic Political Theory. Machiavellianism is the notion that leaders need to be willing to take remorseless and sometimes unethical actions in pursuit of their aims as Niccolo Machiavelli ( 1532/1998) writes in The Prince, “it is better to be feared than loved, if you cannot be both” (p. 69). This citation emphasizes the significance of recognizing the harsh realities of politics and being willing to make challenging decisions for the purpose of accomplishing one’s objectives.
Leaders who are capable to embody these principles are more probably to be accomplished in accomplishing their aims and administrating the unavoidable obstacles to government. Whereas these principles may seem at odds with familiar notions of ethical leadership, they’re; however, vital to accomplishment in the political sphere. Cogent leaders need to be willing to make challenging decisions and take calculated risks for the purpose of accomplishing their goals, although this intends to compromise their ethical principles partially. it is worth mentioning that the principles of leadership in Realistic Political Theory are not universally agreed to accept or without controversy.
Critics argue that this advance to leadership is too interested in power and self-interest and that it overlooks the significance of ethical considerations and the common good. Moreover, several scholars have impeached the practicality of Realistic Political
- The meaning of MACHIAVELLIANISM is the political theory of Machiavelli; especially : the view that politics is amoral and that any means however unscrupulous can justifiably be used in achieving political power. Retrieved May 14, 2023, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ Machiavellianism.
Theory in the contemporary world, where global interdependence and the emergence of non-state actors have challenged the familiar apprehension of asserting power.
Despite the fact that these criticisms, Realistic Political Theory stays a well-liked framework for knowledge the difficulties of leadership in the political sphere. By emphasizing the significance of pragmatism, strategic thinking, flexibility, realism, and Machiavellianism, this theory offers an indispensable lens over that to study and comprehend the complexities of public affairs. Moreover, the principles of leadership outlined in Realistic Political Theory might be applied to a range of contexts, from international relations to local government.
Compatibility and Integration of Mahāyāna Buddhism’s Teachings and Realistic Politics Theory on Leadership.
A pragmatic approach to political theory recognizes that leadership is undoubtedly an important element in maintaining harmony and promoting stability. It emphasizes the importance of powerful and effective leaders who can make difficult decisions that benefit the greater good. Likewise, Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy emphasizes the need for wise and compassionate leaders who can guide enlightenment. The process of integrating this framework may involve recognizing the importance of certain qualities including empathy, awareness and willingness to listen. A leader who is compassionate and sensitive to the needs and wants of his people can effectively promote trust and security which is the basis for building a loyal and united society. In this regard, Mahāyāna Buddhist teachings can provide significant and valuable insight into the qualities of effective leaders.
An additional way to integrate these frameworks is to acknowledge that leadership is not just about power and authority, but additionally about duty and accountability. Realistic political theory underscores that leaders are accountable to their constituents and need to act in their optimum passions. Similarly, Mahāyāna Buddhism’s teachings emphasize the significance of ethical behaviour and the duty that comes with power. A leader who is mindful of their actions and their effect on other people can advert belief and self-assurance in their leadership. Moreover, Mahāyāna Buddhism’s teachings can provide insights into the responsibility of leadership in encouraging social equality and parity. The teachings highlight the significance of displaying kindness towards all beings and the have to ease suffering in the universe. Therefore, leadership can play a pivotal part in encouraging fairness by addressing structural inequalities and encouraging policies that prioritize to have of oppressed groups.
A compassionate leader who can comprehend and associate with the hopes and ambitions of their constituents can advert beliefs and confidence, that is crucial in constructing a steady and cohesive society. Mahāyāna Buddhism’s teachings on sympathy can propose indispensable insights into the qualities of cogent leadership.
Bodhisattva ideal
To furthermore comprehend the compatibility and integration between realistic political theory and Mahāyāna Buddhism’s teachings on leadership, its very important to contemplate the idea of the “bodhisattva,” that is central to Mahāyāna Buddhism.
The bodhisattva path may be visible as well suited to sensible political theory in several ways.
First, the bodhisattva route emphasizes the significance of serving others and working for greater accuracy. This aligns with the concept of public provider in politics, where leaders are predicted to serve the pursuits of their constituents and the common correct.
Second, the bodhisattva path emphasizes the significance of wisdom and skillful means in accomplishing one’s objectives. This aligns with the concept of pragmatism in politics, where leaders are expected to make practical decisions that are as said by facts and evidence, instead of ideology or dogma.
Third, this conception of the bodhisattva aligns with the notion of a leader in realistic political theory who is committed to representing the current excellent. Realistic political theory emphasizes the significance of leaders who are dedicated to the welfare of their individuals and who are willing to make sacrifices for the better excellent (Boucher, 2009 p.182).
Finally, in Mahāyāna Buddhism, the perfect bodhisattva is also handles the welfare of other people but additionally seeks to lead by example, involving other people in their actions. This aligns with the idea of a leader in realistic political theory who leads by example, involving other people to track their own actions.
Skillful Means
The idea of skillful means is a key aspect of Mahāyāna Buddhism’s teachings on leadership. Skillful intends consults to the aptitude to employ diverse methods and techniques to accomplish one’s goals, based on the circumstances. This can include applying persuasion, negotiation, or even force, if appropriate.
In the Lotus Sūtra, among one of the most significant Mahāyāna Sūtras, the idea of skillful means is demonstrated over the parable of the blazing home. In this parable, a father utilizes diverse methods, comprising of the promise of toys and the danger of punishment, to acquire his kids to depart a flaming home. The father’s final goal is to preserve his children, and he makes use of whatever intends need to accomplish that goal.
The idea of skillful means might be seen as in harmony with realistic political theory, that emphasizes the significance of pragmatism and the application of diverse methods to attain one’s objectives. This does not intend that Mahāyāna Buddhism condones unethical conduct or the application of force for its own sake. Rather, the idea of skillful means emphasizes the
significance of applying whatever intends a need to accomplish a worthy goal, as an example the profit of all beings.
The compatibility of realistic political theory and Mahāyāna Buddhism’s teachings on leadership lies in their shared emphasis on skillful means. Both perspectives peer the significance of applying necessary methods to accomplish a wanted goal. If realistic political theory, this intends to apply power to keep up stability and safeguard the assert. And if Mahāyāna Buddhism, this intends applying sympathy and skillful intends to drive other people towards enlightenment and the welfare of all sentient beings.
Additionally, Mahāyāna Buddhism’s emphasis on sympathy and wisdom in leadership additionally aligns with the ideals of realistic political theory. Sympathy is an important Mahāyāna Buddhism’s teachings on leadership, as it’s believed that leaders who are compassionate are greater capable to comprehend their individuals and making decisions that profit everybody. Similarly, wisdom is emphasized in Mahāyāna Buddhism, as it’s believed that leaders who are knowledgeable have greater capabilities to make decisions that are helpful for their individuals in the extended term. (Bhattacharya, 2008).
For example, a leader who is driven by both realistic political theory and Mahāyāna Buddhism may make decisions that are both practical and compassionate in view of the necessitates of all individuals and strive to generate a society that is just and equitable for all. Moreover, the emphasis on wisdom in Mahāyāna Buddhism can add to improve the logical decision-making procedure in realistic political theory, as a knowledge leader is greater equipped to make practical and compelling decisions.
Compassionate leadership is a conception that is highly emphasized in Mahāyāna Buddhism, mainly over the embodiment of the bodhisattva perfect. The Lotus Sūtra teaches that an accurate leader is one who seeks the well-being of all sentient beings, as opposed to concentrating solely on their own passions. A lookalike emphasis is placed on sympathy in the Heart Sūtra, that emphasizes the interdependence of all phenomena and the have to cultivate kindness for all beings. Ethical integrity is a vital aspect of leadership in Mahāyāna Buddhism, exemplified by the bodhisattva precepts. The Avataṃsaka Sūtra teaches that an absolute leader upholds the precepts of non-harming, generosity, and sympathy.
Likewise, the Diamond Sūtra emphasizes the significance of ethical integrity and bypassing attachment to fabric possessions. Realism and pragmatism are crucial elements of political theory, and Mahāyāna Buddhism recognizes their significance in leadership.
Finally, let’s compare several possible points of compatibility between Mahāyāna Buddhism‘s teachings and Realistic Politics Theory on leadership.
Pragmatism: Both Mahāyāna Buddhism and Realistic Politics Theory peer the significance of practical considerations in decision- making. Realistic Politics Theory emphasizes the need to chase national passions and gain power, whereas Mahāyāna Buddhism emphasizes skillful means in replying to the needs to have of other people. Both perspectives are worth a pragmatic advance to leadership, adapting techniques and actions as said by the context and wanted results.
Flexibility: Realism acknowledges the dynamic nature of international relations and the need for leaders to adapt to modifying circumstances. Similarly, Mahāyāna Buddhism emphasizes the significance of skillful adaptation to efficiently tackle the need and hopes, and ambitions of other people. Both perspectives are worth leaders who can navigate complicated environments and adjust their approaches correspondingly.
Balancing Interests: Realism emphasizes the pursuit of self-interest and the protection of national passions. Mahāyāna Buddhism, on the other hand, emphasizes the significance of taking into account the well-being and passions of other people (including all sentient beings). whereas there may be differences in how much of focus, leaders can investigate ways to equilibrium self-interest with kindness and consideration for the broader welfare of individuals and communities.
Moral and Ethical Considerations: Realism tends to prioritize asserting passions over moral and ethical concerns, whereas Mahāyāna Buddhism places a healthy emphasis on compassion, ethical behavior, and the alleviation of suffering. Leaders can integrate moral and ethical considerations within the realist framework by recognizing the extended advantages of ethical behavior, encouraging cooperation, and seeking mutually beneficial solutions that align with broader ethical values.
It is very important to the conclusion that the compatibility between these styles will count on the particular interpretations and applications of Realistic Politics Theory and Mahāyāna Buddhism leadership principles. Distinct leaders may adopt distinct approaches and emphasize distinct facets within these frameworks. Exploring the possible compatibility and synergies between these styles can add to a more nuanced knowledge of leadership and decision- making in diverse contexts. By unifying these frameworks, we may build a more holistic advance to leadership that recognizes the significance of both power and sympathy.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the possibility of compatibility and integration between Realistic Political Theory and Mahāyāna Buddhism’s teachings on leadership is assuring. By exploring this potential, we have revealed a new paradigm for political leadership that emphasizes the significance of both ethical considerations and practical action. This paradigm provides a refreshing choice to the familiar machine of political leadership that prioritizes power and self-interest. Whereas the road ahead may be challenging, we need not lose expectation of the enormous advantages that such a paradigm shift could carry.
A world where leaders are driven by compassion, wisdom, and a profound sense of duty towards all beings is a world that we have to all strive towards. Let us so accept this possibility and labor toward building a new era of government that is more equitable, more humane, and more ecological.
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References
Books:
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- Dutt, (2002). Buddhist Sects in India. Motilal Banarsidass.Greene, R. (1998). The 48 laws of power. Penguin Books.
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- Harvey, (2013). An introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, history and practices (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- Keown, D. (2013). Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University
- Lopez, D. S. (2001). The Story of Buddhism: A Concise Guide to Its History & Teachings. HarperCollins
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Trans.). Penguin Books. (Original work published 1532).
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- (1954). The history of the Peloponnesian War. Penguin Classics.
- Williams, , & Tribe, A. (2000). Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition. Routledge.
Journal Article:
- He, H., & Zhu, M. (2016). A study of leadership from a Buddhist perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 138(2), 333-344.
Website:
- The Avataṃsaka Sūtra. (n.d.). Chapter Retrieved from
https://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/Sūtras.htm
- The Brahmajāla Sūtra. (n.d.). Chapter Retrieved from https://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/Sūtras.htm
- The Diamond Sūtra. (n.d.). Chapter Retrieved from https://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/Sūtras.htm
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buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/Sūtras.htm
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www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/Sūtras.htm
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SELF-TRANQUILLITY TECHNIQUES: FROM REALITY TO BODHISATTVA JOURNEY
Le Thi Kim Ngan2
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Abstract
ranquillity is a state of mind and spirit when feeling comfortable, free of anxiety, pressure, and a sense of
peace and stability from within. Tranquillity measures maturity, confidence, bravery, and an invisible ability. Tranquillity is considered one of the most important factors, especially in the fast-paced, virtual, stressful and busy world. Tranquillity helps us focus, be mindful, work quickly and efficiently, and improve and maintain our physical and mental health. Further, tranquillity not only helps us to achieve the core value of serenity from within but also helps practitioners give, help, and spread that fearless peace to everyone around- a kind of message bearing the spirit of Bodhisattva. The tranquillity of mind outside and inside is also an urgent and necessary value on the Buddhist path of a good life, self-benefit and others. The article submitted uses qualitative techniques, analyses, and synthesizes Buddhist canonical sources
- Tâm Lạc, Ph.D Research Scholar at Psychology Department, Delhi
University, India. This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
and achievements of sages to impart self-tranquillity methods so that the practitioners can look deep within and learn about inner peace.
Keywords: tranquillity, calmness, inner peace, prevention, controlling, Bodhisattva.
Introduction
Everyone sometimes gets angry, loses control, loses their temper, and lets their immature thoughts and words influence their behavior. How to live in tranquillity? It should come from training, cultivating, and changing yourself through the practice of the Dharma, helping to transform from anger to learning how to become tranquillity, gradually enjoying living quietly as a good habit that will follow you throughout your life. A calm person can keep his mind steady, reliable, not in a hurry, and always learn and analyse what is happening harmoniously, simply, and effectively, bringing value. For Buddhism, tranquillity is a factor of the seven dharmas of enlightenment (the Seven Bodhidharmas); this term is often translated as contempt for peace and enlightenment. Because it is an essential factor of enlightenment, a psychological characteristic of an actual person, this article will discuss in detail the basic contents of peace, including Concepts, origins, harms, values, and practice methods.
What is tranquillity in Buddhism?
Tranquillity (安靜) in Pāli is passaddhi, Sanskrit is praśrabdhi (emphasis on trust/confidence), in Buddhism it is often translated as contempt (輕安), (安息), (止). In English, it is called calmness, tranquillity, and serenity.3
Calmness as the control of emotions relates to at least two key ideas: One is that people can learn to control their emotions. The other is that this leads to a state of relative peace and happiness,
- Pāḷi Dictionary: https://palidictionary.appspot.com/browse/p/passaddhi.
which is worth attaining.4 That is, a psychological state indicating peace, stability, and mastery of behavioural capacity; no worries, no anger, no panic, no confusion. This meaning is emphasized for body, speech, and mind to be serene, peaceful, and liberated. To achieve peace of mind, it is necessary to learn the techniques of cultivating - preserving - protecting and developing the mind of joy (pīti). Besides, through the practice of “praying, meditating, resting, ...” to transform body actions (kāyasaṅkhāraṃ) and mind actions (cittasaṅkhāraṃ), in order to have calmness (passambhayaṃ), achieve calm before all the ‘unchangeable and immutable’. Thus, the term of psychology analyzed here is the concept of “tranquillity”; because taking joy as the foundation, from peace towards concentration (samādhi) [disparaging peace and enlightenment factors - after joy enlightenment factor but before concentration enlightenment factor]. In other words, tranquillity is a state of peace of mind and relaxation of bodily actions. The mind is free from anxiety and anger; the body is free from distraction and agitation.
Origin of tranquillity
Humans, in relation to nature and society, have generated various pressures, anxieties, fears, worries and desires. It must be mentioned that external causes and pressures come from many causes. Still, it is generally the impact of indirect and direct influences such as society, environment, and people on ourselves. In addition, it is the intrinsic cause; the human being is a collection of five groups (the five aggregates) under the influence of natural law. The element of form (form) is a material structure which serves as the basis for the direct reception of information flows or pressures from nature and society; through the six senses arise
- Heli Tissari (2019). Calmness Conquers Anxiety: What Language Tells
Us about Mind and Body Control.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86138 .
feeling, perception, mental action and perception. When a feeling is present, perception, mental formation and current perception are called mental factors, reflecting the external world (natural and social) into the mind/spirit. According to Buddhism, the mind has two states: one is under the influence and influence of the external world (passive). The second is that the mind operates independently, controlling the effects of the phenomenal world (active). That is, on the one hand, due to the pressure of the outside world. On the other hand, we are affected by our minds.
Buddhism does not separate the body from the mind as an independent entity but considers it in the relationship of birth and death, called non-dualism. In other words, the person who has no awareness, is affected by the external environment, is a person who is not calm and loses his temper. On the contrary, a tranquillity person controls the mind, aware of changes and external pressures. This is the dialectic and dependent origination of the dharma of peace. Those who understand the tranquillity technique will know how to create peace and calm for themselves. Therefore, there is a division into two classes of calm people and those who are not. Thus, when we understand the source and cause of tranquillity and restlessness, we will know how to live in this world, know what kind of person we are, and how to transform the upward direction into a peaceful person.
A tranquillity person is an enlightened person. Because the root problem of life is how to have a calm mind and then control the body, coordinate and balance emotions in all situations. The leading cause of anxiety is the ability to control and balance emotions, or lack of two factors, joy and concentration, due to the intensity and tempo of external pressures. In summary, the extrinsic and intrinsic causes are fully reflected, considered, and understood to provide the most appropriate techniques for treating restlessness. Depending on the level, choose the appropriate healing method in theory and practice, general and specific cases.
What if you lose your tranquillity?
Those who are aware of the dangers of not calmness and the value of calmness then devote all their energies, accept to learning and fully practice meditation techniques to identify the ‘sweet taste of temptation, harm’, boredom, detachment, separation from greed, and cessation’, only to appreciate peace; otherwise, you will not know how to appreciate and respect peace in mind. As Most Venerable Thich Minh Chau confirms, the Buddha and the Saints have taught that the danger of lack of peace is the source of all evil and suffering.5
Lack of peace is anger, likened to a fire that burns oneself and everything around. A small fire can burn an entire forest. That is the excellent effect of insecurity. There is nothing more dangerous than not having peace of mind. Looking deeper into the matter, restlessness is the root of samsara; looking up close, restlessness is the source of sin, failure and suffering. The wrong decisions of people who are not calm can lead to immediate suffering, such as loss of health, loss of property, separation of friends, broken house, loss of money, traffic accidents, insecurity order, and so on.
The value of tranquillity
For any individual, a tranquillity mind is a valuable ingredient for success. It is more precious than jewels because tranquillity and security are the fulcra, the substrate, to bring far and broad vision, influence decisions, give ideas, and create initiatives. In particular, the peaceful person also can bring fearlessness to everyone (fearless charity), and the person who can spread - share peaceful energy is the happiest person. Being calm in all situations
“Các vị ấy cũng đã trung thành với quan niệm của Đức Phật đã xem mê mờ và thái độ thiếu bình tĩnh là nguồn gốc của mọi ác nghiệp và khổ đau.” Xem Thích Minh Châu, (2005). Đức Phật nhà đại giáo dục, Nxb. Tôn Giáo, Hà Nội, 223.
is a manifestation of a strong soul, meaning that calm determines success and happiness.
In terms of socio-political and truth, there is an interesting example to reflect on the value of calmness; the mind is like the surface of a lake if ripples cannot reflect the image of things. Likewise, when the mind is agitated, it will not recognize the truth, the right, the sweetness of life. Therefore, being calm and slow will reveal the divine way to understand your affairs and other people’s affairs. As Master Thich Thien Sieu quoted Buddha to see the value of calm in socio-political work, family life, and monastic life:
Monks, when you hear someone praise you, don’t be quick to rejoice; if you’re quick to rejoice, you’ll be depraved; When you hear someone criticizing you, don’t be in a hurry to be sad, if you are in a hurry to be sad, you will be depraved. Calmly consider whether the complimented is right for me or not for me. 6
Thus, peace of mind is extremely important because there is calm to be lucid, wisdom to be mindful, with mindfulness to see right, to see right to make the right decision, to have the right decision to achieve success. Conversely, without equanimity, we will fail completely; due to not being mindful, not seeing right, not making right decisions, then doing wrong, receiving severe consequences, and harming or affecting oneself and others. Therefore, a tranquillity attitude is valuable in dealing with people, and social relations, especially diplomatic issues and political decisions.
In terms of studying, the Buddha taught that tranquillity of mind is a characteristic of enlightenment, a prerequisite for gaining wisdom, the three intelligences.7
- Thích Thiện Siêu, (2000). Chữ Nghiệp Trong Đạo Phật, Nxb. Hà Nội,
2002, tr.62.
- “Với tâm định tĩnh, thuần tịnh trong sáng không cấu nhiễm, không phiền não, nhu nhuyến, dễ sử dụng, vững chắc, bình tĩnh như vậy, Ta dẫn tâm, hướng tâm đến Túc mạng minh... Thiên nhãn minh,… Lậu tận trí.” Xem ‘Đại Kinh Saccaka’ trong Kinh Trung Bộ, (2012), Thích Minh Châu dịch, Nxb. Tôn Giáo.
What is explained by Most Venerable Thich Tri Quang, “to be calm is to create a second dharmakaya called the dharmakaya concentration.”8 In the face of those noble values, asking is a method to keep calm; and this is to be learned from the Buddha, with his countless teachings on the art of tranquillizing the mind and body.
Methods for Practicing The Art of Tranquillity Breath therapy
The method of contemplation takes tranquillity of body and mind as the basis for practising mindfulness of breathing: “Calm the body and act… Calm the mind and act, I will breathe in… will breathe out”, he practices.9
This is an important practice that takes contemplation of the body and feelings as a fulcrum, as a method of contemplating the therapeutic breath, called the therapeutic breath or the calm breath.
Full of joy without material ties, eliminating the five hindrances
When diligent practice has joy unrelated to material things, making it full of joy and enlightenment, this person’s body and mind will be calm and peaceful. The peace of mind and body is due to joy; joy is the cause, but this joy (pāmojja: joy) is due to diligent practice and is not related to material things. Especially in the Sāmaññaphala- sutta (The Fruits of the Ascetic Life, DN 2), it is emphasized that the joyful mind is born from the cessation of the five hindrances,10
Giáo, Hà Nội, t.1, tr.307.
- Read ‘Giới đức pháp thân’, trong Thích Trí Quảng, Phật Giáo Nhập Thế Và Phát Triển, (2008), Tôn Giáo, Hà Nội, t.1, tr.214.”
- Xem ‘Kinh Nhập Tức, Xuất Tức Niệm; Đại Kinh Giáo Giới La-Hầu- La’ trong Kinh Trung Bộ, (2012), Sđd, 1, tr.412-13 & 519.
- Năm triền cái (Nīvarana): dục (kāmacchanda), sân (vyāpāda/ byāpāda), hôn trầm - thùy miên (thīna-middha), trạo hối (uddhacca-kukkucca), nghi (vicikicchā). Xem ‘Kinh Niệm Xứ, Kinh Gò Mối’ trong Kinh Trung Bộ, (2012), Sđd, t.1, tr.90-91&191; “Thế nào là năm? Dục cái, sân cái, hôn trầm thụy miên cái, trạo hối cái, nghi cái.” Xem Kinh Trường Bộ, (2013), Sđd, 2013,
attain a peaceful body, then the feeling of peaceful rising should
be calm, the first jhāna experience with the five jhāna factors.11
The six types of tranquillity associated with meditation states
That is, speech is calm, thoughts are calm, joy is calm, breathing in and out is calm, perception and feeling are calm, and greed, anger, and delusion are calm.12
Seven conditions for tranquillity to be present
In the Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga), Buddhaghosa presented seven things that bring peace and serenity to body and mind. It is eating sublime food, living in suitable climatic conditions, always keeping a pleasant/harmonious attitude, following the middle way, avoiding evil people, cultivating a lenient attitude in all activities, and being resolute in mind and on a peaceful path.13
tr.220. “Lại có năm pháp, tức là năm cái: tham dục cái, sân nhuế cái, thụy miên cái, trạo cử cái, nghi cái.” Xem ‘Kinh Chúng Tập’ trong Kinh Trường A-hàm, (2007). Tuệ Sỹ dịch, Nxb. Tôn Giáo, Hà Nội, t.1, tr.251.
- “Khi quán tự thân đã xả ly năm triền cái ấy, hân hoan sanh; do hân hoan nên hỷ sanh; do tâm hoan hỷ, thân được khinh an; do thân khinh an, lạc thọ sanh; do lạc thọ, tâm được định tĩnh. Tỷ-kheo ly dục, ly ác pháp, chứng và trú thiền thứ nhất, một trạng thái hỷ lạc do ly dục sanh, với tầm, với tứ.” Xem Kinh Trường Bộ, (2013), Sđd, 2013, tr.78.
- Chayimā, bhikkhu, passaddhiyo. Paṭhamaṃ jhānaṃ samāpannassa vācā paṭippassaddhā Dutiyaṃ jhānaṃ samāpannassa vitakkavicārā paṭippassaddhā honti. Tatiyaṃ jhānaṃ samāpannassa pīti paṭippassaddhā hoti. Catutthaṃ jhānaṃ samāpannassa assāsapassāsā paṭippassaddhā honti. Saññāvedayitanirodhaṃ samāpannassa saññā ca vedanā ca paṭippassaddhā honti. Khīṇāsavassa bhikkhuno rāgo paṭippassaddho hoti, doso paṭippassaddho hoti, moho paṭippassaddho hotī”ti. Này các Tỷ-kheo, có sáu khinh an này, khi chứng Thiền thứ nhứt, lời nói được khinh an; khi chứng Thiền thứ hai, tầm tứ được khinh an; khi chứng Thiền thứ ba, hỷ được khinh an; khi chứng Thiền thứ tư, hơi thở vô, hơi thở ra được khinh an;… khi chứng Diệt thọ tưởng định, tri giác và thọ được khinh an. Ðối với Tỷ-kheo đã đoạn tận các lậu hoặc, tham được khinh an, sân được khinh an, si được khinh an.” Xem ‘Phẩm Sống Một Mình’ trong Kinh Tương Ưng Bộ, (2013), Nxb. Tôn Giáo, Hà Nội, t.2, tr.286.
- Bhadantacariya & Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (trans.) (1999). The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga. Seattle, WA: BPS Pariyatti Editions, 132.
Protection, repentance and care of the six senses
Protecting the senses is a priority, which is essential because it is directly related to our daily lives. All things are related to the senses, and the six senses are in contact with the six objects; the six consciousnesses are present. That is why upholding the six senses is the supreme practice, avoiding unwholesome sources, cravings, and defilements. Thus we can protect from afar the objects associated with desire, anger, and delusion. Buddha taught:
When we see a sight with our eyes, we won’t get caught up in the features and details. If the faculty of sight were left unrestrained, bad unskilful qualities of covetousness and bitterness would become overwhelming. For this reason, we will practice restraint, we will protect the faculty of sight, and we will achieve its restraint. When we hear a sound with our ears... When we smell an odor with our nose... When we taste a flavor with our tongue... When we feel a touch with our body... When we know a thought with our mind, we won’t get caught up in the features and details. If the faculty of mind were left unrestrained, bad unskilful qualities of covetousness and bitterness would become overwhelming. For this reason, we will practice restraint, we will protect the faculty of mind, and we will achieve its restraint.’ (Bhikkhu Sujato, (trans.). Mahāassapurasutta).”14
This is the first aspect; protection is like prevention; as our ancestors taught, ‘prevention is better than cure’.
In the second aspect, identify the sins of the six senses according to “Luc Thi Repent Khoa Nghi” by King Tran Thai Tong. That is, prevention of disease, but failure should practice repentance - healing also prevents disease. Because the six senses are the source of sin, it is necessary to repent and practice based on recognising mistakes and eliminating errors of the six senses. Repent of old wrong karma, stop all mistakes, and aim to stop creating
- Xem ‘Đại Kinh Xóm Ngựa’ trong Kinh Trung Bộ, (2012), Thích Minh Châu dịch, Nxb. Tôn Giáo, Hà Nội, 1, tr.34.
new faults created by the six senses. This is upholding the precepts, practicing virtue, and ‘just keeping’ (to stop is to practice). These two aspects are in a passive position, only prevention and treatment.
The third solution is to provide healthy food for the six senses, not stopping at the maintenance and repenting of mistakes but progressing to caring, cultivating, nurturing, developing, and providing food. In other words, to find the best environment to live and practice. It is avoiding sources of pollution for the six senses, avoiding contaminated foods, and knowing how to practice the ‘four immeasurable’ and ‘four foundations of mindfulness’. The Dharma of the Four Foundations of Mindfulness is the most exquisite food of Buddhism; it is the single path leading to peace and tranquillity, capable of leading to Buddhahood. Because of purity input, the body-mind is peaceful (physio-mental tranquillity), producing good deeds; the body-mind contains the seeds of peace, goodness, and morality.
Contemplating the Five Aggregates
We should take time to deeply contemplate and reflect on the nature of body and mind through the analytical method in each individual is the inclusion of the Five Aggregates. The Buddha taught that the body and mind comprise body, feeling, perception, will, and mind. The nature of the Five Aggregates is not inherently real, as the Buddha said:
Form is neither stable nor certain, form is invisible, illusory, unreal. Feelings are neither stable nor solid, just like the foam on the water, illusory, unreal. Perception is not stable, nor solid, illusory, unreal, as well as blind. Thoughts are neither stable nor solid, like the trunk of a banana tree, not real. Consciousness is neither stable nor solid, illusory, unreal.15
The dharma signs that are not real are translated into verse: “Contemplating form like water bubbles,/ Feelings like shadows on water,/ Perception like harsh sunlight,/ The cessations like a
- Xem ‘Phẩm Tà Tụ’ trong Tăng Nhất A-hàm, (2011). Thích Đức Thắng dịch, Phương Đông, TP. Hồ Chí Minh, t.2, tr.386.
banana tree,/ The mind that seems to be illusory,/ The appearance of everything./ Knowing the five aggregates like this/ The wisdom without attachment”.16
This practice is used by both Theravada and Developmental Buddhism as the central contemplation to develop a daily practice, thereby clearly seeing and realizing the nature of ‘suffering, emptiness, not-self.
Reflection on the Four Noble Truths
As a method of enhancing the power of the mind by contemplating the ‘four truths of the noble ones’, a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of principles concerning the four noble truths. It is when a mendicant truly understands: “This is suffering... ‘This is the origin of suffering’... ‘This is the cessation of suffering’... ‘This is the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering.’”17
That is, contemplating and remembering the meaning of the Four Noble Truths to know suffering, the cause of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the way to end suffering, and then use this method to cure the suffering of anger and lack of composure.
Be an avid learner
The great master Shàn Dăo (善導, 613-681) taught to recite the Buddha name Amitābha to keep the mind calm, such as: “One- pointedly concentrates on reciting the name of Amitābha Buddha. Moreover, he devoted himself to ‘not competing with people, not demanding, keeping his mind gentle and calm.”18
Likewise, Most Venerable Thích Trí Quảng shared about the
- “Sắc như chùm bọt nổi;/Thọ như bong bóng nước;/Tưởng giống như quáng nắng;/Hành như thân cây chuối;/Thức là pháp huyễn hóa.” Xem Tăng Nhất A-hàm, (2011). Sđd, t.2, tr.386. Xem ‘Phẩm Ly Thế Gian Thứ Ba Mươi Tám’ trong Kinh Đại Phương Quảng Phật Hoa Nghiêm, Thích Trí Tịnh dịch, (2011). Tôn Giáo, Hà Nội, tr.549.
- Kinh Trường Bộ, (2013), Sđd, 453.
- Pháp Sư Huệ Tịnh, Nhuận Hà dịch, (2015). ‘Bất Luận Tội Hay Phước, Niệm Phật Đều Được Vãng Sanh’ trong Bản Nguyện Niệm Phật, Nxb. Tôn Giáo, Hà Nội, 123.
practice of mindfulness of the mind, attaching the mind to the Buddha, through reciting the Buddha’s name, he develops the right concentration. Reciting the Buddha’s name helps to calm the mind before all difficulties and generate wisdom.19
Reciting Buddha’s name has great value in calmness and is
important in keeping serenity, mindfulness, and good thoughts.
According to Venerable Yin Guang (印光, 1862-1940), if anger and confusion arise, they should be pacified by using healing maxims and quotes; the second is to use the time to deal with it, by waiting for the anger to stop on its own so that peace and calm can be present; The third is to remember not to act violently and speak in anger.20
In modern times, Zen Master Thích Nhất Hạnh, who is considered a symbol of mindfulness, is the founder of “Buddhist Commitment”. he also shared a lot of mindfulness techniques, such as: listening, smiling, letting go, breathing, meditating, etc. In particular, Thầy re-introduced the method of contemplating the host and guest in the Śūraṃgama-sūtra. Because of this, “all sentient beings who do not become Bodhisattvas and Arhats are all misled by the guest-dust affliction.”21
Likewise, according to the Mahā Ratnakūṭa Sūtra, “foolish and ordinary people do not realize that the self-nature is inherently pure, but are polluted by the guest-dust affliction.”22
- Thích Trí Quảng, (2002). Những Bài Giảng Về Hoằng Pháp Và Trụ Trì, Tôn Giáo, Hà Nội, tr.296.
- “Còn như khi cái tánh ngu bướng, ngạo nghễ của người ấy trỗi dậy, nếu thấy đối trị được thì hãy dùng những danh ngôn chí lý để ôn hòa bình tĩnh đối trị. Nếu không được thì cứ mặc kệ, đừng động đến kẻ ấy nữa, đợi khi kẻ ấy hết nóng, lại ôn hòa, bình tĩnh cùng kẻ ấy bàn luận khúc chiết, lâu dần kẻ ấy cũng bị cảm hóa. Trọn chẳng nên dùng đến những phương cách bắt buộc, mạnh mẽ, dữ dội...”. Như Hòa Chuyển Ngữ, (2013), Ấn Quang Đại Sư Gia Ngôn Lục, Taiwan, 289.
- 大佛頂如來密因修證了義諸菩薩萬行首楞嚴經 (卷1), T19, 945,
- 109c4-5. “一切眾生不成菩提及阿羅漢，皆由客塵煩惱所誤.”
22 大寶積經 (卷39), T11, no. 310, p. 226b21-22. “愚癡凡夫不覺如是自性清淨，而為客塵煩惱之所染污.”
Therefore, when guests visit our house, whether they love or hate it, we are still the host and should not be harassed by guests; guests come and go. We are still safe and happy. They are all methods of contemplation to keep the mind mindful, calm, and peaceful before all things come - go, gain - loss, success-failure, back and forth, birth and death - Nirvāna.
Conclusion
Through the Buddhist healing techniques shared above, this section summarizes and recommends basic methods to preserve, heal, and protect the daily peace of mind and body. It is mastering the techniques of disease prevention - treatment, and care/ enhancement of peace as follows:
Prevention: fully understand the content - meaning - value - role of tranquillity; recognize the dangers and harms of insecurity; uphold and control the six senses.
Improve peace of mind: recognize the nature of impermanence, suffering, and non-self of the five aggregates; fully realize and think the Four Noble Truths (Catvāri Āryasatyāni); regularly recite the Buddha’s name, reflect on oneself (ask oneself), contemplate the host - guest.
Tranquillity is one of the seven dharmas of enlightenment. The path to achieving serenity consists of three pillars, the fundamental principles for creating - renewing - building - maintaining - developing. This is how we strengthen our calmness through the three ways of preventing disease, curing it, and building up our resistance. Every Buddhist practitioner who wants to achieve tranquillity is nothing more than to experience and live in that dharma for himself.
***
References
- Bhadantacariya & Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (trans.) (1999). The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga. Seattle, WA: BPS Pariyatti
- Đại Bảo Tích Kinh 大寶積經 (卷39), T11, no. 310.
- Đại Phật Đảnh Như Lai Mật Nhân Tu Chứng Liễu Nghĩa Chư Bồ Tát Vạn Hạnh Thủ Lăng Nghiêm Kinh 大佛頂如來密因修證了義諸菩薩萬行首楞嚴經 (卷1), T19, 945.
- Heli Tissari (2019) Calmness Conquers Anxiety: What Language Tells Us about Mind and Body, DOI: http:// doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86138
- Thích Trí Tịnh dịch, (2011). Kinh Đại Phương Quảng Phật Hoa Nghiêm. Nxb. Tôn Giáo, Hà Nội.
- Thích Minh Châu dịch (2012). Kinh Trung Bộ. Nxb. Tôn Giáo, Hà Nội.
- Tuệ Sỹ dịch, (2007). Kinh Trường A-hàm. Nxb. Tôn Giáo, Hà Nội
- Thích Minh Châu dịch (2013). Kinh Tương Ưng Bộ, Nxb. Tôn Giáo, Hà Nội.
- Như Hòa Chuyển Ngữ (2013). Ấn Quang Đại Sư Gia Ngôn Lục.
- Pháp Sư Huệ Tịnh, Nhuận Hà dịch (2015). Bất Luận Tội Hay Phước, Niệm Phật Đều Được Vãng Sanh trong Bản Nguyện Niệm Phật, Tôn Giáo, Hà Nội.
- Thích Đức Thắng dịch (2011). Tăng Nhất A-hàm. Nxb. Phương Đông, Hồ Chí Minh.
- Thích Minh Châu, (2005). Đức Phật nhà đại giáo dục.
Nxb. Tôn Giáo, Hà Nội.
- Thích Thiện Siêu, (2002). Chữ Nghiệp Trong Đạo Phật.
Nxb. Hà Nội.
- Thích Trí Quảng, (2002). Những Bài Giảng Về Hoằng Pháp Và Trụ Trì. Tôn Giáo, Hà Nội.
- Thích Trí Quảng (2008). Phật Giáo Nhập Thế Và Phát Triển. Tôn Giáo, Hà Nội
- Pāḷi Dictionary: https://palidictionary.appspot.com/browse
/p/passaddhi.
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EMBODIMENT OF THE BODDHISATTVA IDEAL IN THE LIFE’S JOURNEY
Research Scholar
Thich Nu Tue Man -Tran Thi Bich Phuong
Department of Buddhist Studies University of Delhi
E-mail: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
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Abstract
āhayāna and Hīnayāna Buddhism have different
opinions of Bodhisattva. The Bodhisattva wants to help all living beings with his vast talents. He’s acquired the highest level of wisdom yet refuses Nibbāna or Buddhahood. The purpose of this topic is to explore Bodhisattva ideals in modern Buddhism. This article examines the Boddhisattva ideal and pledges to apply it to life’s path to achieve liberation now and in the future. For doing this, I gather and analyze data from Buddhist Bodhisattva to provide a complete study of the issue and its relationship. This paper examines how a Bodhisattva practitioner of Bodhicitta follows such as the Six Perfections (pāramitās) and the Four Unlimited States of Mind and No Self to achieve enlightenment. The paper also deeply delves into what Buddha said about the world of Bodhisattvas. It would be interesting to compare it to the problems of today and how people treat each other with kindness and knowledge, which leads to happiness and peace on the path of life. It can also help us swiftly gather and disseminate Buddha’s teachings in our life as an embodiment of the Bodhisattva ideal, even for people who do not adhere to anything.
Keywords: Bodhisattva ideal, Buddhahood, Apply for daily life.
INTRODUCTION
The Māhayāna and Hīnayāna Buddhists have different ideas of Bodhisattva. Leighton and Teigen Daniel said, “Bodhisattvas are beings who are dedicated to the universal awakening and enlightenment of everyone. They exist as guides and providers of succor to suffering being and offer everyone an approach to meaningful spiritual life.”23 The Bodhisattva has decided to use his excellent skills for the good of all lower-level living things. He has reached the highest level of wisdom for all intents and purposes but chooses to put off Nibbāna or become a Buddha forever. The Hīnayāna sect stresses Arahat. They seek immediate and complete liberation. It is common to refer to Gotama Buddha reincarnations as Bodhisattva in the Jātaka stories, making the Bodhisattva an almost historical character. In contrast, the Māhayāna emphasizes to Bodhisattvas that the skies are full of Bodhisattvas who work for the good of all beings. They are always working for the service of all living things, and believers should try to be like them, whether they are monks or not. They can also be a source of help when things go wrong. It fits the culture and society of the world’s current development.
I am following the Māhayāna Buddhist tradition now. It affects
how I imagine a Bodhisattva in my mind. The topic aims to study
- Leighton and Teigen Daniel, Bodhisattva Archetypes, New York: Penguin Akana, 1998, p.1 & http://tibetanbuddhistencyclopedia.com/en/index. php/Bodhisattva_Archetypes.
and analyze the embodying of the Bodhisattva ideal and reflect on Modern Buddhism. From that, I want to cultivate towards becoming a Boddhisattva. I have to learn about the Bodhisattva ideal. So, this paper will focus on a study of the Boddhisattva ideal and vows to put them into practice in life’s journey, which leads to freedom now and in the future. The writer’s plan for this study is as follows: Analytical tools are ways to look at data collected during an evaluation. Textual sources related to the central Buddhist view of the Bodhisattva ideal will be used to collect and analyze data. It is a crucial component of the investigation. It is done, and an effort is made to give a complete study of the topic and its relationship, from which universal compassion and wisdom can be drawn.
CONTENTS
“A Bodhisattva was defined as one who strove to gain bodhi and scorned such nibbāna, as he wished to help and succor his fellow creatures in the world of sorrow, sin, and impermanence.”24
The word “Bodhisattva” comes from the Sanskrit language. It means “anyone who has generated bodhicitta, a spontaneous wish, and a compassionate mind to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings. Māhayāna bodhisattvas are spiritually heroic persons that work to attain awakening and are driven by great compassion.”25 As a result, Bodhisattva denies even Nibbāna as long as all beings are not yet rescued. This is to state that Bodhisattva, who refuse the happiness of nibbāna, come to this world out of compassion. The climb of wisdom for a Bodhisattva ends at the point of nibbāna, from whence the decline of compassion begins. Thus, the Bodhisattva is distinguished by two actions, one climbing and the other lowering. The upward path is the home of all Buddhist knowledge and practice, from percept (sīla) through meditation (dhyāna) to wisdom (prajñā) and beyond.
- Har Dayal, The Boddhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature,
London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., LTD., Broadway House, 1932, p.4
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhisattva
Each one is fostered to be used on the path to ultimate freedom. The Bodhisattva path’s ten bhūmis and the six pāramitā are consistent with each other’s teachings. The most well-known Bodhisattva vow is the perfection of the six paths to enlightenment: the path of giving (dāna), keeping the precepts (sīla), having patience (kṣānti), working hard (vīrya), meditation (dhyānā), and wisdom (prajñā). If one travels along these routes, they will eventually reach the other shore, where they will find enlightenment. Because the offering helps one control a fearful or angry mind, practicing endeavor helps one be diligent and faithful, the practice of concentration aids in controlling a wandering and futile mind, and practicing wisdom transform a murky and confused mind into a clear and penetrating insight. Giving and upholding Precepts are the base on which a great castle can be built. Endurance and Endeavor are the castle’s walls, which keep enemies from getting in. Meditation and Wisdom are the personal armor that saves a person from the attacks of life and death.
Suppose an offering is not a True Offering if it gives merely when it is convenient or because it is simpler to give than not to share. When someone offers without being asked and expecting anything in return, they make a “True Offering.” A True Offering gives with joy, without thinking about the donor, the recipient, or the gift itself after the fact; this is the only way for the act to be genuinely selfless. Giving without expecting anything in return out of a sincere desire to help another person achieve Enlightenment is what we mean by true offering. For instance, the Mahasattva prince once upon a time. His two older brothers took him and him to the forest one day to play. A tigress and her seven kids were spotted, and their mother was hungry enough to consider eating them. To rescue the lives of the baby tigers, Mahasattva climbed a rock and hurled himself at the tigress from a great height while the older brothers raced away in terror. This act of kindness from Prince Mahasattva was completely unprompted, but “he wanted to save them… Thus, Mahasattva saved the dying tigress and her cubs. He died to save them, but his selfless spirit of helping others
even at the cost of his own life never died.”26
It is a common myth that Gotama Buddha had a past existence. Aware of the transience of his physical form, he sacrificed it to the tigress as a sign of his commitment to enlightenment.
It is clear that the Bodhisattva practitioner of bodhicitta must engage in all of the teachings and practices incorporated in the Six perfections (pāramitās). Therefore, the central Buddhist practice is Bodhicitta, the selfless motivation. When one contemplates these principles, cultivation of bodhicitta and expansion into compassion, wisdom, etc., are required. The Holiness Dalai Lama explained, “ Frist, one speaks of ultimate bodhicitta, referring to the direct cognizance of the true status of phenomena. This is the wisdom of emptiness: an immediate, nondual insight that transcends conceptualization. Second, there is relative bodhicitta, by which is meant the aspiration to attain the highest good, or Buddhahood, for the sake of all, together with all the practical steps necessary to achieve this goal.”27
In addition, the Four Unlimited States of Mind are essential spiritual qualities that the Bodhisattva should venerable. They are compassion (kuruṇā), tenderness (mettā), gladness (muditā), and equanimity (upekkhā) because one can eliminate avarice by cultivating compassion. “It is compassion to all suffering living beings. Compassion is not the same as sentimentality, which is a state of mind accompanied by sorrow.”28
Through kindness, one can dispel wrath. “Mettā is loving- kindness without the desire to possess. It is love without selecting and excluding. It is love, embracing all living beings. Loving- kindness is not the same as selfish affection.”29 By being joyful,
- Nhucche Bjracharya, The Story of Jataka Mala, Book 3, Nepal: Ananda Kuti Vihar Trust, 1999, p.4-6
- The Holiness Dalai Lama, The way of the Bodhisattvas: Bodhicharyāvatāra, London: Shambhala, 2011, p.12
- Karunadasa, Early Buddhist Teachings: The Middle Position in Theory and Practice, Srilanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 2015, p.108.
- Ibid, p.108
one can alleviate distress. “It is the ability to feel happy and joyful at the success of another. It is the sharing of others’ happiness as if it were ours. Altruistic joy is the best antidote for the poison of jealousy. Jealousy is the resentment and bitterness one experiences when another succeeds.”30 One can break the habit of favoring allies over foes by cultivating a fair-minded mindset. “Since it is the perfect, unshakable balance of mind. It is not negative indifference but a positive social virtue. Equanimity is our ability to remain calm and unruffled when we face the eight vicissitudes of life. These are gain and loss, blame and honor, insult and praise, delight and despair... As such, equanimity enables us to transcend all divisive thoughts and feelings based on class, caste, race, religion, nationality, ethnicity, and all forms of parochialism, as well as gender distinctions.”31
In that case, it is possible to cherish the Four Unlimited States of Mind and rid oneself of avarice, wrath, suffering, and love-hate states of mind, but it is difficult. A wicked mind is as difficult to eradicate as stone-carved letters, whereas a sound mind is as simple to lose as words inscribed in water. Indeed, training oneself for Enlightenment is the hardest thing in existence. Meanwhile, faith, humility, effort, and wisdom are tremendous fortitude sources for those pursuing Liberation. The foremost of these is insight; the others are wisdom aspects. A man will be removed from the path to liberation during his training. He adores worldly affairs, relishes idle chatter, and falls unconscious. In pursuing liberation, some may achieve success more quickly than others and attain enlightenment first. When a man practices archery, he does not anticipate immediate success, but he is aware that he will become steadily more accurate with perseverance. Beginning as a rivulet, a river expands until it reaches the ocean. It indicates that he speaks on the Buddhist doctrine of “No-Self,” which is always an analogy to the concept of compassion and never contradicts it. Specifically, he should allow his compassion to flow toward those who lack
- Ibid, p.109
sufficient knowledge to pursue enlightenment. He should wish he could follow liberation and then make a selfless effort to stimulate his curiosity. If one adheres to Buddha’s teachings, he will realize that everything is characterized by emptiness (Sūnyatā). It does not trivialize the things that enter a man’s voyage through journey life, but it accepts him for who he is and then strives to transform him into a suitable instrument for enlightenment. He must not believe that this world is meaningless. He must not believe that this world is meaningless and chaotic while the world of liberation is filled with meaning and serenity. Instead, he ought to experience the path of liberation in all worldly affairs. As previously stated, all occurrences result from the interaction of causes and conditions. Nothing ever exists in isolation; everything exists with one another. Every time there is light, there must be a shadow. Where there is length, there must be brevity; where there is white, there must be darkness. As the self-nature of these objects cannot exist independently, they are deemed non-substantial. Using the same logic, neither enlightenment nor ignorance can exist without the other. How can there be duality if there is no difference in the essence of things?
People often think they have something to do with birth and death, but this is not the case. When people understand this, they understand that birth and death are not two different things. People like the idea of having an ego personality, so they like owning things. However, because there is no such thing as an “ego,” possessions do not exist. When people understand this truth, they can understand the truth of non-duality. People also value the difference between cleanliness and dirt. Still, there is only such difference in how things are if it comes from their wrong and silly ideas. People also make a difference between good and evil, but good and evil are not two different things. Those on the road to enlightenment do not see this kind of split, so they do not praise the good and hate the bad or hate the good and accept the bad. People naturally worry about bad luck and hope for good luck, but if we look closely, bad luck can often be good luck, and good luck can sometimes be bad luck. The wise man learns to deal with the ups and downs of life with a level head, not getting too excited or down when things go well or badly. This is how the truth of non-duality is seen. So, all the words that describe dualities, like “existence” and “non-existence,” “worldly passions” and “true knowledge,” “purity” and “impurity,” and “good” and “evil,” are neither used nor understood in their true nature. To the extent that individuals can avoid using such words and the feelings they conjure, they have come to understand the universal reality of emptiness.
If a person views the world with tainted, ignorant eyes, he will perceive it to be filled with error; however, if he views the world with clear wisdom, he will recognize it for what it truly is: a world of illumination. The reality is that there is only one universe, not two, one devoid of meaning and the other rich with it, or good and evil. Due to their capacity for discrimination, people believe there are two universes. If he could free himself of these distinctions and maintain a purified mind with the illumination of wisdom, he would see only one world in which everything has significance.
Those who believe in Buddha experience this global purity of oneness in everything; in that state of mind, we feel compassion for all beings and a modest attitude toward serving everyone. Therefore, we must purge our brains of pride and value humility, kindness, and service. Our minds should be like the fertile earth, which feeds everything without discrimination, serves without complaint, suffers patiently, is constantly enthusiastic, and finds its most excellent satisfaction in assisting all impoverished people by sowing the seeds of the Buddha’s teaching in their minds. As a result, the compassionate mind becomes a mother to all individuals and honors all people, regards all as close personal friends, and respects all as connection family. Thus, even if millions of individuals harbor ill will towards Buddhist lay followers, they can not harm because such harm is a drop of poison in the waters of a vast ocean.
I appreciate how Buddhism concerning wisdom and compassion serve as a corrective to our current preoccupation with individual striving as the ultimate foundation for philosophy and religion. When the global economy develops so quickly, life becomes increasingly materialistic, resulting in a decline in the human spirit. Humans have sought no boundaries in worldly and spiritual things because of avarice. We are overcome by desire in life which gradually destroys our happiness. We should practice one of the six pāramitās to grow and deepen compassion. We have planted the seed of generosity and a desire to make people happy. Dāna is a simple way to develop our deep longing since it provides non-discrimination to everyone. “This is the highest form of giving. If you give as a Bodhisattva, the outcome will be tremendous, and the happiness created will be enormous. Please learn more about giving. The more we give, the happier we become, and we make so many people around us happy.”32 In the Sūtra of the Aṅguttara Nikāya V, the Buddha states, “A person who gives alm gains five benefits. What five? (1) One is dear and agreeable to many people. (2) Good persons resort to one. (3) One acquires a good reputation. (4) One is not deficient in the layperson’s duties.
(5) With the breakup of the body, after death, one is reborn in a good destination, in a heavenly world. These are the five benefits of giving.”33
Let us end this by asking meaningless questions: If there had never been any belief in Bodhisattvas, would the world be better off now? Would there have been more or less love and friendship among people if the Bodhisattva’s vow, which encourages people to help others without expecting anything in return, had never been made? Is the concept of the transfer of honor meant to comfort and reassure believers or to make them afraid? The response to these three queries is very obvious. In some places in Southeast Asia, men have had to be Bodhisattva, at least in the past few hundred years. Even though humans are becoming more innovative and influential, the world may need spiritual love, help, and kindness. Popular internet shows, and the internet’s growth is helping to
- Thich Nhat Hanh, The Path of Emancipation, New Delhi: Full Circle
Publishing, 2010, p.244.
33 AN. V, p.661
create a new pseudo-scientific myth for the 21st century. This myth is about supermen and wonders women, which children believe in and some of their parents would like to believe in, but we can not let go of our reason enough to do so. These people are the Bodhisattvas of our time. Even in today’s liberal world, it is clear that the Bodhisattva ideal is still alive.
It seems like the Māhayāna teaching of the Bodhisattvas could make sense if we believe there will be more Buddhas in the future. The first story about the future Buddha Metteyya is at the end of the Cakkavatti-Sīhanāda Sutta,34 which is a long work with all the signs of being written late. The Buddha predicted Metteyya after he talked about how life was getting increasingly violent after the death of King Daḷhanemi. We told him that the future Buddha would be the first of the next phase of cosmic development, which will be the ascent, and that he would be born as a man after the seven days of the sword when the period of decline ends with the end of all human life and the people who are left start to change their ways and try to live in peace with each other. After describing the horrors of the world’s end, the story of Metteyya ends with a word of hope, which suggests that it was added later, but this is by no means certain. Once the idea of future Buddhas, especially Metteyya, was accepted, it became possible for the Boddhisattva faith to be put to use in the modern world.
The Venerable Thich Nhat Hanh, who established Mindfulness meditation in the present moment, has integrated the teachings of Buddha into contemporary life and assisted many people in their transition from suffering to pleasure and serenity of mind. He resembles a Bodhisattva who has spent his entire existence spreading the Dhamma. In particular, the 14th Dalai Lama, renowned for being a compassionate and sage Bodhisattva in real life, has also influenced the beliefs of contemporary Tibetan Buddhists. However, Bodhisattva practice is something that we can do right now. A Bodhisattva practitioner can help in places like
34 DN. III, p.395-397
hospitals, jails, and poor areas like hell on Earth. We bring peace to everyone, depending on what we are doing. When we go to poor places, hospitals, jails, etc., we share food, tools, and a good way of life to help people get out of suffering, like a shadow in a picture, showing that people suffer because of their greed, hate, delusion, and thanks. They do not accept the truth because they cannot see things as they are and do not care about anything. They also do not accept the truth because they want to own everything. For patients, “Everyone does not regard five aggregates thus: ‘This is mine, this I am, this is my self.’ That five aggregates of their changes and alters. With the change and alteration of five aggregates, there do not arise in their sorrow, lamentation, pain, displeasure, and despair.”35 It means sharing love and lifting spirits to live a worthwhile life, and accepting that the survival of the five aggregates is not our own. Even though it hurts the body the most, it does not break the heart. “It is in such a way that one is afflicted in body but not afflicted in mind.”36
We should think seriously about what is happening and try to live this beautiful, magical life. We can tell prisoners that karma is the ultimate truth of cause and effect and that the only path to get rid of them is to repent, practice staying in the present, direct body and mind to the good, keep the precepts we have been given, and help other initiates find joy in doing these things.
CONCLUSION
In short, the topic presents us, society, and others with what Lord Buddha said about Boddhisattva’s goals and works. At the moment, I look deeply into what Buddha said about the world of Bodhisattvas. It would be interesting to compare it to the problems of today and how people treat each other with kindness and knowledge, which leads to happiness and peace on the path of life. As a disciple of the Buddha who cultivates Buddha dhamma
35 SN.III, p.866-867
36 Ibid, p.856
daily, I propose that we reflect with stately grace in morality when encountering anything or affliction, manage the situation with intelligence, and always maintain the mind in the breath of profound concentration and wisdom. In any event, we practice Dhamma to cultivate Bodhicitta, and constant meditation leads to sublimation in daily life. Realizing the natural universe is attained when the mind is calm and sufficient effort is expended to cultivate the powers of Morality, Concentration, and Wisdom. In addition, do not abandon Sutta and embrace Dhamma if we make brotherhood Dhamma or knowledge acquaintances. Not only are we to know what to do for all living beings by supporting materially impoverished people with unconditional love and compassion, but also by instructing laypeople in practicing the Buddha’s doctrine and so forth. It will lead to liberation in Dhamma like “there were a hen with eight, ten, or twelve eggs, which she had covered, incubated, and nurtured properly. Even though she did not wish: Oh, that my chicks might pierce their shells with the points of their claws and beaks and hatch out safely! Yet the chicks are capable of piercing their shells with the points of their claws and beaks and hatching out safety. So too, a bhikkhu who thus possesses the fifteen factors including enthusiasm is capable of breaking out, capable of enlightenment, capable of attaining the supreme security from bondage.”37
In a technologically advanced society, we have global access to information via the internet, social media, and television... We can easily acquire a wealth of knowledge in every field, but we must prioritize intelligence for our benefit. As an embodiment of the Bodhisattva ideal sake for humans who do not adhere to anything, it can also help us rapidly accumulate and propagate the teachings of the Buddha in the joinery life.
***
37 MN. I, p.197
BIBLIOGRAPHY
- The Anguttara Nikāya, R. Morris and E. Hardy, 5
vols, PTS, London, 1885-1900; Tr. F. L. Woodward and
- M. Hare, The book of the Gradual Sayings, 5vols, PTS,
London, 1955-1992 (reprints)
- The Dīgha Nikāya, Ed. T. W. Rhys Davids and J. E. Carpenter, 3 vols, PTS, London, 1980-1911; T. W. and
- A. F. Rhys Davids, The Dialogues of the Buddha, 3 vols, PTS, London, 1989-1990; Maurice Walshe, The Long Discourses of the Buddha, Wisdom publication, London, 1987.
- The Majjhima Nikāya, Ed. V. Trenker and R. Chelmers, 3 vols, PTS, London, 1883-1896; Tr. I. B. Horner, The Collection of the Middle Length Sayings, 3vols, PTS, London, 1954-1990 (reprints)
- The Saṃyutta Nikāya, M. L. Feer, 5 vols, PTS, London , 18841898; Tr. C. A. F. Rhys Davids and F. L. Woodward, The book of the Kindred Sayings, 5 vols, PTS, London, 1950-1992 (reprints).
- Leighton, Teigen Daniel, Bodhisattva Archetypes, New York: Penguin Akana, 1998
- Nhucche Bjracharya, The Story of Jataka Mala,
Book 3, Nepal: Ananda Kuti Vihar Trust, 1999
- Har Dayal, The Boddhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature, Kegan Paul, Trench, -Trubner & Co., , London: Broadway House, 1932
- Thich Nhat Hanh, The Path of Emancipation, New Delhi:
Full Circle Publishing, 2010
- The Holiness Dalai Lama, The way of the Bodhisattvas: Bodhicharyāvatāra, London: Shambhala, 2011
- -Y.Karunadasa, Early Buddhist Teachings: The Middle Position in Theory and Practice, Srilanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 2015
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhisattva
- http://tibetanbuddhistencyclopedia.com/en/index.php/
***
THE IMPORTANCE OF GENERATING OF BODDHSATTA ON THE PATH
OF BODHISATTVA
Ph.D. Scholar Thich Nu Thuan Nguyen - Vo Thi Kim Nhi
Calcutta University
E-mail: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
Mobile: +916287046359
Abstract
The cultivation of bodhicitta, the mind of enlightenment, holds significant importance on the path of the bodhisattva in Mahāyāna Buddhism. Bodhicitta represents the aspiration to achieve Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings, embodying wisdom and compassion. It defines a bodhisattva and motivates its selfless actions. The journey of the bodhisattva is exemplified by the Buddha’s own life, marked by compassion and the rejection of personal enlightenment in favor of guiding others toward liberation. Bodhicitta serves as a driving force, fueling the practitioner’’ dedication to sacrifice and effort, and inspiring the development of the six perfections. Through the power of bodhicitta, the bodhisattva aims to relieve the suffering of others and guide them towards liberation from saṃsāra, employing skillful means and adapting teachings according to individual needs. The bodhisattva’s ultimate goal is to attain enlightenment and serve as a protector, guide, and source of support for sentient beings on their journey to the other shore of nirvāṇa. The practice of bodhicitta involves acts of generosity, self-sacrifice, and offering assistance, as well as cultivating patience, renunciation, loving-kindness, and equanimity. By generating bodhicitta within oneself, one embarks on the noble path of the bodhisattva, dedicated to the welfare and liberation of all beings.
Keywords: Bodhicitta, bodhisattva, Mahāyāna Buddhism,
Buddhahood
The Mahāyāna traditions that emerge at the beginning of the first century CE place great importance on cultivating compassion. This compassion is drawn from awakening the mind of enlightenment (bodhicitta), emphasized in most presentations of the bodhisattva path. That is generating within oneself a desire and determination to achieve Buddhahood.
According to Mahāyāna Buddhism, “bodhicitta” or “the thought of awakening” is the mind (citta) aimed at awakening (bodhi) with wisdom and compassion for the benefit of all sentient beings. It is the bodhicitta quality that defines a bodhisattva (one who strives towards Buddhahood), and it is the act of giving rise to bodhicitta and resulting in bodhicitta that describes a bodhisattva. There is a mutually beneficial relationship between these two factors. Based on its etymology, the word is derived from two Sanskrit words, bodhi, and citta. In Buddhist terminology, bodhi means “awakening” or “enlightenment.” It refers to the state of all-embracing knowledge and freedom from cognitive and emotional limitations possessed by the Buddhas. Citta derives from the Sanskrit root cit, which means “consciousness” (i.e., the human mind or consciousness). Citta can mean mind, intelligence, intention, or will. There are several translations of the word bodhicitta, such as “awakening mind” or “mind of enlightenment” (Das, 1998, pp. 145-146). It is sometimes translated as “the thought of enlightenment” (Wright, 2016, p. 129ff). Bodhicitta, then, is the mind or thought that takes the supreme bodhi of the Buddhas as its aim. This term has always been associated with the resolve to become a Buddha or a bodhisattva.
In the presence of bodhicitta, the practitioner can increase one’s motivation for sacrifice and effort to achieve the final goal. The noble motivation of bodhicitta is the best explanation for why Siddhartha Gautama became a Bodhisattva, then a Buddha, and turned the wheel of Dharma. This idea is expressed by the 14th Dalai Lama as follows:
Bodhicitta —the aspiration to attain full awakening for the benefit of all sentient beings—is the magnificent motivation that enabled Siddhārtha Gautama to become a bodhisattva and then a Buddha and to turn the Dharma wheel (Lama & Chodron, 2014).
Śākyamuni, long ago, as the Brahmin Sumedha, inspired by the past Buddha Dīpaṃkara, rejected immediate enlightenment for himself and embarked on what can only be called his bodhisattva path to Buddhahood. The Buddha ended the quest that began so long ago under Dīpaṃkara and took him through many previous existences. One of his many lifetimes is mentioned in Jātaka, the works that deal with the bodhisattva’s sacrificial vows. The Pali Jātaka Commentary recounts no fewer than 547 past lives of the Buddha. Before attaining Buddhahood, he transformed into different forms in order to perfect himself, such as the king, ascetic, tree god, brahmin, prince, nobleman, god Sakka (Indra), monkey, merchant, deer, lion, and fewer than ten times as a variety of other beings. Jātaka stresses the length, difficulties, and extraordinariness of the path to Buddhahood and the greatness and awesomeness of the deeds the bodhisattva had to accomplish to reach this goal. In seeking enlightenment, bodhicitta is not simply striving for the best and highest like nirvāṇa but to benefit everyone by achieving it. There is an intimate connection between compassion and bodhicitta.
In the story of the Buddha’s life, we can see all these luxuries of courtly life, and all these princely accomplishments are emphasized to show the magnitude of the bodhisattva’s sacrifice and the greatness of what he gives up when he wanders forth from the palace. A bodhisattva’s desire to attain Buddhahood should be motivated by compassion for the suffering of others. As a result, he decided to find the way to liberation, even though the road ahead was vast, and he did not know where to find it. As Gampopa puts it: “The essence of the formation of an enlightened attitude (bodhicitta) is the desire for perfect enlightenment in order to be able to work for the benefit of others” (Guenther, 1971, p. 112). Therefore, the desire to give up everything and find the way to liberation has roots in bodhicitta.
Undoubtedly, the Buddha’s life story is characterized by particular episodes that focus on the suffering of those around him. These events caused him to feel compassion for them and motivated him to devise a strategy for dealing with grief. Bodhicitta is considered the primary motive for developing compassion, which made him distinct from his contemporaries. As an infant or young boy, he experiences his first meditation under the rose-apple tree when he realizes a different aspect of suffering. While watching from a distance, he observes the sweating men, the laboring oxen, and the insects and worms thrown up by the plows and eaten by the birds. The young bodhisattva realized that life and death were connected, and what was supposed to be a joyful, enjoyable occasion was filled with suffering. In addition, the bodhisattva experienced his first realization of suffering while riding a chariot to a pleasure park outside the city; he met an older man, a sick man, and a corpse. At the sight of the ill and the dead man, much the same dialogue and realization occur, which greatly distresses the bodhisattva. His completion of the inevitability and universality of three things, old age, sickness, and death, will later be encapsulated into his formulation of the first Noble Truth of “suffering” (duḥkha). A more emotive episode is that of the bodhisattva on the night of his departure in an attempt to find a solution to the suffering of human beings. A text describes his father sleeping soundly, and instead of waking him, the bodhisattva circumambulates around his bed and says: “Father, I am not leaving out of lack of respect... but for no other reason than that I wish to liberate the world... from the fear of suffering that comes with old age and death” (Strong, 2001, p. 72). I wondered if we do not see suffering in ourselves and others, will we have a solid motivation to practice, to do something to reduce this suffering of others? Therefore, the goal of engaging in the world of Mahāyāna thought is to alleviate suffering for others and give oneself an even greater motivation to benefit sentient beings. In this way, helping others is also an effective method of achieving liberation for oneself.
A further example of Bodhicitta’s power is that the Buddha meditated under the guidance of two great teachers and practiced asceticism for six years until he almost lost his life.
My body reached a state of extreme emaciation. Because of eating so little, my limbs became like the jointed stems of creepers or bamboo; my backside became like a buffalo’s hoof; my backbone, bent or straight, was like corded beads; my jutting and broken ribs were like the jutting and broken rafters of an old house; the gleam of my eyes sunk deep in their sockets was like the gleam of water seen deep down at the bottom of a deep well.38
Bodhicitta serves as a fuel to motivate practitioners to strive for progress despite adversity, difficulties, or obstacles. There is a strong sense of purpose that comes from it. It should be noted that the Buddha spent thousands of years tirelessly serving people in order to alleviate suffering. A basic meaning of bodhicitta is the lofty commitment to “strive to end all sufferings of others as well as their suffering,” as stated by Paul Williams in Indian sources (such as Atisha’s Bodhipathapradipa). This bodhicitta is based on deep compassion (karuna) for those who suffer (Williams, 2008, pp.194-195).
In the Mahāyāna sūtras, the Buddha is shown teaching that the bodhisattva path is the supreme spiritual path. For a monk or layperson to begin a spiritual career of bodhisattva, they must generate the thought which takes bodhi as its aim. They must generate bodhicitta. Serving others by working for their benefit.
- The Longer Discourse With Saccaka, Mahāsaccakasutta, MN 36
“Working for the benefit of others” means two things: relieving the suffering of others within saṃsāra through generosity, self- sacrifice, and assistance; and permanently relieving the suffering of others by showing them the way out of saṃsāra, i.e., the way to enlightenment. It is possible to see the noble qualities in countless lifetimes as a bodhisattva of the Buddha described in the Jataka.
Consequently, bodhicitta leads us to strive to achieve the six perfections. In order to attain Buddhahood, perfection is necessary. Hence, Kamalaśīla declared in his Stages of Meditation that compassion alone is the prime cause of all Buddhahood qualities (Beyer, 1974, p. 100). The goal is to show people the way out of suffering. It is necessary for the practitioner to be liberated, having accomplished the path and achieved its fruition, in order to guide others. As a result, they are encouraged to be more diligent, to put more effort into wisdom, and to overcome their ignorance. In order to attain perfection, the meditator must continually perfect himself, not only throughout one life but also over countless eons.
Having achieved supreme fruition, we can share the path that has led us to enlightenment with others. Therefore, the bodhisattva’s career begins with the emergence of bodhicitta, as explained in the Daśabhūmika Sūtra (Dayal, 1970, p.50). It may be noted that this is reminiscent of the vow made by the Buddha ages ago when he, as the Brahmin Sumedha, was inspired by the past Buddha Dīpaṃkara and also embarked on the path towards Buddhahood. Rejecting immediate enlightenment for himself, Sumedha declared: “I would... attain the highest Enlightenment, and taking mankind aboard the ship of the Dharma, ford them across the ocean of saṃsāra” (Jayawickrama, 1990, pp. 17–18). The ultimate goal of the bodhisattva’s life is to attain the highest enlightenment and guide sentient beings beyond saṃsāra. In other words, the bodhisattva attained enlightenment before assisting others.
There are many different personalities among sentient beings. Bodhisattvas need to learn to be flexible in their teachings in order to be able to help people. For this reason, bodhisattvas will use their wisdom and employ various means to interpret the path and guide sentient beings on the way to liberation. The skillful means or expedient techniques (Skt. upāya) is another critical virtue and doctrine in Mahāyāna Buddhism. It is believed that the Buddha adapts his teachings to the needs of each individual. Therefore, the Buddha may teach seemingly contradictory things to different people.
Our discussion will focus on how the bodhisattva assists sentient beings. A bodhisattva’s vow also describes how one will assist sentient beings during this vital endeavor. Among the vows described by Śāntideva, one of which reads: “May I be a protector of the unprotected, a guide for travellers on the way, a boat, a bridge, a means of crossing for those who seek the other shore” (Strong, 2008, p. 178). The other shore may be a peaceful and secure location called nirvāṇa. Bodhisattvas serve as protectors, guides, bridges, or means of crossing to assist meditators in achieving their goals. More specific, detailed vows are also mentioned in addition to these rather general ones. The following are examples of self- sacrificial schemes similar to those found in Jātaka:
May I… become one who works to alleviate all beings’ suffering completely. May I be medicine for the sick; may I also be their physician and attend to them until their disease no longer recurs? With showers of food and water, may I eliminate their pain of hunger and thirst, and during... periods of great famine, may I be their food and drink. May I be an inexhaustible storehouse for people with low incomes, and may I always be first in being ready to serve them... Nirvāṇa means to renounce everything. My mind is set on nirvāṇa, so I should give to others because I am to renounce everything. I, therefore, dedicate this self of mine to the happiness of all beings. Let them smite, mock, or throw dirt at me… Let them do whatever pleases them, but let no one suffer any [karmic] mishap on my account. Whether they direct toward me angry thoughts or kindly, may those very thoughts be a constant cause for their achieving all their aims... Just as the Buddhas of the past grasped the mindset of enlightenment and went on to follow the bodhisattva-training, so too do I give rise to the mindset on enlightenment for the well-being of the world, and so will I train in the stages of the bodhisattva path. (Strong, 2008, pp. 177–178).
Observing the actions that can assist sentient beings in times of illness, hunger, or difficulty is possible. A bodhisattva practices the perfection of giving (dāna pāramī), making sacrifices, and offering material possessions to those in need. The most crucial aspect of bodhicitta is contemplating non-self and emptiness to accept harsh words, difficult circumstances, and unsatisfactory experiences. Regardless of what human beings choose to do, no one should suffer any [karmic] repercussions, and whether they direct angry or kind thoughts toward bodhisattva, may their very thoughts always serve to achieve all their goals. An example of this would be the perfection of patience (khanti), renunciation (nekkhamma), loving-kindness (mettā), and equanimity (uppekhā).
According to Buddhist tradition, such compassion and bodhicitta mark the beginning of the bodhisattva path. How does one arouse these feelings within oneself? Various Mahāyāna authors advocate various techniques, but they constitute a preliminary path leading to the bodhisattva’s path. According to some accounts, a person can engage in a series of contemplations. One begins by reflecting upon the various kinds of suffering that beings suffer due to their various paths of rebirth. As a result, they would imagine that each of these beings had been a mother to each of them in some previous life.
For this reason, filial compassion for the suffering of others is essential. The concept of exchange of self and other is often emphasized, which implies realizing that one’s suffering is no different from other people’s and that one should act to alleviate their suffering as well as one’s own. There have been several additions to this list of practical advice. Gampopa notes, for example, that if you are depressed at the thought of the long and challenging path ahead, remember that your efforts will be rewarded. His recommendation is to utilize the opportunity to be reborn as a human in order to practice. In his article, the author discusses the importance of having “spiritual friends,” that is, teachers that will instruct one on the nature of saṃsāra, how to take refuge, and how to develop bodhicitta (Guenther, 1971, pp. 2-141) in texts such as Buddhaghosa’s The Path of Purification relating to the four sublime attitudes (brahmavihārā) such as loving-kindness or benevolence (mettā), compassion (karuṇā), empathetic joy (muditā), equanimity (upekkhā). Such practices are typically described as extending love to one’s self first, then to one’s dear one, a neutral person, a difficult person, and then to all beings. As love is cultivated, compassion is cultivated, which is the desire to relieve suffering for all beings. The process begins by focusing on someone suffering enormously or contemplating an evildoer who will be caught and subjected to suffering. Then, after reflecting on one or both of these types of individuals, one extends compassion to a dear one, a neutral person, and finally, a difficult person. In order to cultivate joy, one should first reflect on and take pleasure in the success and happiness of a dear one, then a neutral one, etc. As a final step, one cultivates equanimity or impartiality by systematically reflecting on the premise that all beings have the same desire for happiness. Such practices induce a state of concentration and absorption in the mind, resulting in a sense of stability and joy. (Nyanamoli, 1964).
On the path of the bodhisattva, it is essential to generate bodhicitta. Initially, when consumed with self-concern, it is not easy to consider such an attitude. We have only ever done things for our happiness for countless rebirths. As a result of bodhicitta, we put self-interest aside and work solely for the benefit of others. When we put aside our selfish nature of mind and work for others, a real sense of happiness emerges quickly as a byproduct. Besides, when the motivation to work for the benefit of sentient beings is also the fulfillment of one’s noble qualities from which the mind is being developed towards its ultimate potential, the fully awakened mind of enlightenment. True happiness begins when we begin to cherish those around us.
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REFERENCES
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- Bodhi, (2009). The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha. With Saccaka, Mahāsaccakasutta, MN 36. Wisdom Publications.
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- Dayal, H (1970). The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarsidass
- Guenther, H. V. (1972). Buddhist Philosophy in Theory and Practice. Harmondsworth, Penguin
- (1971). The Jewel Ornament of Liberation by sGam.po.pa. Berkeley, Shambhala
- Jayawickrama, A. (1990). The Story of Gotama Buddha: The Nidāna-kathā of the Jātakaṭṭhakathā. Oxford, Pali Text Society.
- Lama, Dalai; Thubten Chodron. (2014). Buddhism: One Teacher, Many Traditions. Wisdom
- Nyanamoli, B. (Trans.). (1964). The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga) by Buddhaghosa. Colombo, Ceylon: A. Semage
- Strong, J. S. (2001). The Buddha: A Beginner’s Guide. Oxford,
- Strong, S. (2008). The Experience of Buddhism: Sources and Interpretations (3rd ed.). Belmont, Thomson Wadsworth.
- Sujato, Bhikkhu. (2018). With Saṅgārava, Saṅgāravasutta, MN Suttacentral. https://github.com/suttacentral/ bilara-data/tree/published/translation/en/sujato/sutta/sn.
- Williams, (2008). Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal
Foundations. Routledge.
- Wright, Dale (2016). What Is Buddhist Enlightenment.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190622596.
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EMBODYING THE BODHISATTVA IDEAL IN DAILY LIVES
Ph.D. Scholar TN. Khiem Ton – Nguyen Thuy Chi
Andhra University
E-mail: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. Mobile: +91 7386993189
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Abstract
he Mahāyāna sect of Buddhism upholds the Bodhisattva ideal as a primary concept, signifying a goal to attain enlightenment for oneself and all sentient beings. Traditionally, the ideal concept has been a part of the spiritual journey associated with monasticism and genuine spiritual path seekers. Nevertheless, the Bodhisattva ideal is relevant to the contemporary world and can be strongly observed in ordinary life. While the act of Bodhisattva is essential for transforming ordinary people into righteous beings, it also has a positive potential in addressing social issues. This paper will investigate how individuals can embody the Bodhisattva ideal in everyday life experience, developing compassion and altruism in individuals’ daily lives. In addition, the paper examines the role of the Bodhisattva ideal in addressing humanitarian crises such as environmental problems, social inequality, and domestic violence. Drawing from Buddhist commentaries, contemporary texts, and research, the writer will offer practical tips and strategies for developing human qualities such as empathy, kindness, and
generosity for addressing humanitarian crises.
Keywords: Mahāyāna Buddhism, Bodhisattva ideal,
Interconnectedness, Human crisis
Introduction
Mahāyāna Buddhism pursues the Bodhisattva ideal, a path of enlightenment that stresses compassion and kindness as a fundamental purpose of a spiritual path seeker to help all sentient beings. The Mahāyāna literature advocates that the ‘Bodhisattva’ is a being who has accomplished enlightenment. However, instead of entering Nirvana, they liberate other sentient beings by returning to the human realm. While the Bodhisattva ideal is an essential value associated with the ascetic life, it remains realistic in the everyday experience of an individual through diverse practices, such as cultivating compassion and kindness towards others, taking social actions that liberate society from social issues, and working to reduce everyone’s suffering from the samsara. Such Bodhisattva acts can be achieved through social services such as volunteering, generous contributions (charity), and acts of engagement with society.
Moreover, the paper will discuss the importance of recognizing the coexistence/interconnectedness of all being as an aspect of the Bodhisattva ideal. The apprehension of the significance of the Bodhisattva ideal can only be observed in everyday life if only one understands that our actions will impact the world around us. Therefore, all beings exist interdependently. By embracing the knowledge of interconnectedness, everyone can strive to cultivate a sense of duty toward the well-being of all beings and have the effort to generate a more compassionate and equitable society. From this perspective, the Bodhisattva ideal suggests an alternative model for positive interaction with the world, underscoring the significance of compassion, selflessness, and ethical conduct in every action in everyday life.
The article begins by examining the ‘Bodhisattva ideal,’ its historical significance, and its relevance to contemporary society. Then explores the psychosomatic benefits of practicing compassion and altruism and the possible challenges and difficulties one might face. To substantiate the argument, the paper provides relevant anecdotes of how individuals have embodied the Bodhisattva ideal through personal life, leadership, remarkable service, and social engagement, such as in civil society organizations. The paper will conclude by highlighting the significance of incorporating the Bodhisattva ideal into one’s daily life and in the political arena to create a more fulfilling and meaningful society. Regardless of religious background, compassion, altruism, and generosity are shared values everyone must pursue to transform society into a better world.
Historical Significance of Bodhisattva Ideal
In the early schools of Buddhism, the Theravada and Mahāyāna have very prominent concepts, the ‘arahant ideal’ and the ‘bodhisattva ideal,’ often interpreted as the respective guiding ideals of the two schools. However, this supposition is not entirely accurate, for the Theravada tradition has engaged in observing the bodhisattva ideal in its context and eventually recognizes the significance of both ‘arahantship’ and ‘buddhahood’ as substances of aspiration. Therefore, it would be more appropriate to assert that the ‘arahant ideal’ and the ‘bodhisattva ideal’ are the respective guiding ideals of Early Buddhism and Mahāyāna Buddhism.
The ideals of Bodhisattva and Buddhahood have been developed upon stemming from various bodies of Buddhist literature throughout the historical development of Buddhist literature. In this sense, it is vital to understand that these ideals are the product of the historical process in Buddhist literature development rather than assuming that it might have been the two choices of ideal worship provided in the 5th century B.C.E by Buddha at Mahāyāna sūtras, such as the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra and the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka Sūtra (the Lotus Sūtra), give the impression that the Buddha did teach both ideals. Such sūtras, however, certainly are not archaic. To the contrary, they are relatively late attempts to schematize the different types of Buddhist practice that had evolved over roughly four hundred years after the Buddha’s parinirvāna “ (The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahāyāna, 2013).39
Role of Compassion in Bodhisattva Ideal
Compassion (Bodhichitta) is an indispensable quality ‘which plays a significant role in an individual’s interactions with family and society. The current transformation in family patterns and social functions has called for ethical grounds to elevate people and society from the unrest. Despite scientific, anthropological, and other social sciences approaches to understanding humanity and its problem, family and societal issues such as domestic violence, crimes, deviance, and racial discrimination are still a serious challenge. Nevertheless, the essential aspect of a Bodhisattva ideal being ‘compassion’ is the ability to empathize with other’s pain and suffering, coupled with a genuine desire to help alleviate problems. Compassion is a crucial constituent of community building, and it empowers individuals to form healthy networks while contributing to society’s well-being. “The Bodhisattva ideal is provided for the engaged form of Buddhism that does not run away from the world’s suffering but actively seeks to end all beings’ mental and physical sufferings. These human qualities represent the Buddhist attitude to their final goal.”40 Thus, compassion sanctifies relationships and co-existence in society by cultivating good intentions as a seed of compassion within individuals.
Nurturing Compassion in the Family and Society
Cultivating compassion in individuals determines the rest of their well-being, such as in family and society. Compassion can be cultivated in individuals through several means, including education, exposure to different cultures, and mindfulness practices. Compassion and kindness are virtues that direct us away
- Bhikkhu Nyanatusita himi. The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahāyāna, - Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society Inc., 2013. BP625. – 240P.; 22cm.
- Vo Van Hoi, Asst. Prof. L.T. Dr. Banjob Bannaruji, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull. An Analytical Study of Bodhisattva Concept in Mahāyāna Buddhism. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018),pp. 152.
from ourselves and our cravings and thus free us from suffering. Ironically, the most self-interested thing we can do is be unselfish. To treat me best, and to free myself from suffering, we need to focus not on our suffering but on the suffering of others. Our suffering feeds on itself; our attention to it is the oxygen that fills its lungs. So enlightened self-interest demands that we take the focus off me.41 Education can promote empathy and compassion by teaching individuals about the experiences of others, promoting understanding and tolerance. Exposure to different cultures can increase empathy and compassion by providing individuals with a broader perspective on the world and the challenges others face.
The family is the primary unit of society, and it plays a crucial role in shaping individuals’ attitudes and behaviors. Compassion in the family is crucial for creating a supportive and nurturing environment for its members. According to Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy Ven. Vo Van Hoi, Asst. Prof. L.T. Dr. Banjob Bannaruji, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull (2018), the Bodhisattva is the bearer or messenger of the Buddha’s teachings. Benefiting others through various gestures regarding social service, a small helping hand during needy times, and being non-judgmental of the person and situation reinforces the innate ability to empathize with others. For instance, respecting your partners’ opinion while parenting and bringing resolutions mutually for the betterment of child development is part of being compassionate. Such a small act springing up from the family has a tremendous impact while one is out there in the social realm. Thus, the Bodhisattva ideal is always about listening to the sufferings of all people to help them overcome sufferings and find the truth of real peace. “Scholars of the Mahāyāna tradition and Buddhist philosophers used the images and ideals of the Bodhisattva in the Sūtras of Mahāyāna Buddhism in order to apply “skillful means” to develop
- William Irwin. Liberation through Compassion and Kindness: The Buddhist Eightfold Path as a Philosophy of Life. Journal of Philosophy of Life. 69 .
the actual teachings of the Buddha in life. Therefore, there is no resistance from human beings when compassion flows through their consciousness, especially when the mind is feeling the stream of knowledge, wisdom, and compassion.42 Moreover, compassion in the family promotes a culture of empathy and kindness, leading to a stronger sense of community. Family members who exhibit compassion towards each other tend to be more supportive of others, leading to a more harmonious society. For example, a child who experiences compassion from their parents is more likely to show empathy towards others, leading to more compassionate and caring relationships with their peers.
Compassion enables family members to understand and support one another during challenging times, increasing trust and intimacy in the family. For example, parents who demonstrate compassion towards their children help them develop a positive sense of self-worth and self-esteem, leading to healthy relationships in the future. Eventually, it is crucial to develop and inculcate such values through family lives and interactions among the members to contribute to society’s well-being.
Compassion is a requisite for crafting a fair and just society. It allows individuals to link with others and construct a sense of community, stimulating social cohesion and inclusivity. Compassionate societies are the manifestation of its member, and they uplift the community’s vitality. Eventually, the compassionate tend to possess more tolerance and acceptance of cultural differences, which amplifies social harmony and reduces social unrest. Moreover, compassion in society can lead to increased well-being for individuals. Communities that prioritize compassion tend to have lower stress and anxiety levels, leading to improved mental health outcomes. Additionally, compassion can lead to increased levels of social support, which has been linked to improved physical health outcomes.43 For example, societies
42 Ibid.p.152.
prioritizing compassion as a vital aspect of social life are inclined to be more helpful and caring of vulnerable populations, such as the elderly, the sick, and those with disabilities. Being compassionate is being a true responsibility keeper, a selfless leader for the benefit of all beings.
The Qualities of Bodhisattva in Leadership
To exist in a just and fair society, righteousness is a prerequisite quality of a leader. A peaceful or turmoil society is built upon the quality of a leader. Nevertheless, the question arises, what kind of leader should a peaceful society adhere to? What is the quality of a leader who understands the application of a society wholesomely? According to Buddhist principles, to be a social leader is to know oneself. To know what you do not know is right, and work to bring transformation within the individual. Therefore, it is about seeking inward than outside to understand oneself better and, eventually, other things. A great leader can prioritize truth and righteousness as a factor that makes people come along in the construction of life and society without the need for greed or hatred as a motivation.44
The transformation of society is very much unforeseen, and society faces an impact of the transformation in terms of positive and negative consequences. As per the Buddhist tradition, the negative aspect of change, such as social unrest, environmental crisis, and any other misfortunes, are believed to be the effect of what is caused by human behavior. Nevertheless, Bodhisattvas descend to the human realm to protect and guard against hurdles and misfortunes. Thus, the ethical leaders who guide and protect their nation from the socio-economic crisis are believed to be the Bodhisattvas born as humans to save the world. Such cults were very prominently engaged in ancient Kingdoms and today in many Buddhist Countries. According to Mahāyāna tradition, Maitreya is
- Bluth, K., & Neff, K. D. (2018). New frontiers in understanding the benefits of self-compassion. Self and Identity,pp. 605-608.
- Phrakhrusangkharak Thawee Abhayoa , Phramaha Wiruth Wirojanob , Chanathip Srithoc , Suraphon Promgund Leadership According to the Buddhist p. 2428
a bodhisattva in the Heaven of Joy (Skt. Tuṣita) who will descend to the human realm continent of Jambudvīpa (earth) as the next Buddha in the future. Literature suggests that the first bodhisattva cult in India to have appeared is of Maitreya, influencing the later development of other bodhisattva cults, such as those of the bodhisattvas Avalokitesvara and Manjusri. The Bodhisattva cult had spread in India at the beginning of the first century and was dominantly seen flourishing in central and East Asia around the 4th century CE. Since then, the role of the Bodhisattva ideal, the future Buddha, Maitreya, has been playing a significant role in shaping the personality of a leader, a kingship.45
In ancient Kingdoms, the Bodhisattva cult was widely incorporated and appropriated for the socio-political organization. Historical sources in the Pali accounts and epigraphic literature outline this process from the Anuradhapura to the Polonnaruva period in Srilanka. The Bodhisattva ideal significantly contributed to legitimacy and the consolidation of the power and authority of the Emperor or King. The legitimacy of the kingship was based on the quality of a leader who protects people and society and promotes spiritual growth, such as through Buddhism. For instance, in Sri Lanka, where the conversion of a king introduced Buddhism, it was accredited by the role of the monarch as an agent and a guardian of Buddhism; thus, the qualities of an ideal Buddhist king were steadily extended across different societies in Asia.46
The concept of the Bodhisattva King came to be appropriated to political ideology, and the power and legitimacy of an emperor were much reinforced. The Bodhisattva persona associated with The Kingship purified the Buddhist community and embedded ethical values along with a leader’s responsibilities.
The Bodhisattva ideal was vigorously applied in the
history of socio-political affairs in China in its long history. Dr.
- Translated by the Dharmachakra Translation The Noble Sūtra “The Bodhisattva Maitreya’s Birth in the Heaven of Joy”,p. 2 (section 1.2)
- Yabbuuchi The Ideal of the Bodhisattva King in Sri Lanka and the Reform of the Sangha. p. 1136
Shanta Ratnayaka writes in his book “Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhism,” that Kenneth Kuan Sheng Ch’en’s work on “The Bodhisattva Ideal in Chinese Buddhism,” that dating back to the Tang Dynasty, Bodhisattva cult centers around the worship of Bodhisattvas such as Maitreya, Avaloketisvara, and Manjusiri. The leaders were considered to be the manifestation of the incarnation of these Bodhisattva, who descended into the human realm to protect the human world from social turmoil. Moreover, liberate all other sentient beings from the circle of suffering. One of the most revered Bodhisattva ideals in China is Guanyin. Guanyin was venerated as a manifestation of Avalokitesvara, as Guanyin possessed a Bodhisattva personality of compassion and mercy to his subjects. Guanyin is among the most popular Bodhisattva ideals in Chinese Buddhism and is worshipped by millions of Chinese people. Millions of Chinese people revere and devote themselves to worship Guanyin as a protector, a savior of a people, and a society from turmoil.47 Both texts provide a prevailing practice of the Bodhisattva cult in China, including the role of Bodhisattva Guanyin, who associates its persona with various individual forms, including female and male leaders.
The Bodhisattva ideal is often associated with a Kingship in most of the Himalayan Buddhist Kingdom. During the National Assembly speech on 17 December 2014, the Fifth King of Bhutan made an address to the public that his father, the Fourth King, is pronounced as the embodiment of the Three Guardians of a nation: For the extraordinary development His Majesty instilled to the nation, the citizen regard and revere His Majesty to be the embodiment of Rigsum Gonpo (Vajrapani, Avalokitesvara and Manjusiri). Further, His Majesty the Fifth King expressed that when the country’s security was endangered, The Fourth King bravely defended the nation, even risking his life. He can be regarded as Chana Dorji (Vajrapani), a Bodhisattva. For the
- Ch’en, Kenneth Kuan “The Bodhisattva Ideal in Chinese Buddhism.” In The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahāyāna , edited by Bhikkhu Nyanatusita, pp. 251-270
Kindness and compassion His Majesty bestows for the cause of well-being and happiness of his beloved people, he is honored and regarded as a manifestation of the Bodhisattva of Compassion, Chenreyzig (Avalokiteshvara). For the farsightedness and clarity in the policies envisioned for the development path, he is described as the lord of wisdom, Jampelyang (Manjushri).48
The historical accounts portray that the ethical, compassionate, and merciful leader has often represented the quality of the Bodhisattva. Eventually, the succeeding leaders perpetuate the quality of Bodhisattva to protect and secure the nation from strife and unforeseen challenges.
Buddhist Ethics and Addressing Humanitarian Crisis
The ethic is one of the core principles of the teachings of Buddha. In Tibetan, the Jangchub Sempai Cheypa (Act of Bodhisattvas) is crucial for one aspiring to liberate from samsara. It stresses the significance of leading a moral and ethical life. At the core of Buddhist ethics, non-violence (ahimsa) is considered a primary cause of peace and tranquility for individuals and society. Similarly, compassion, mindfulness, and the cultivation of wisdom are essential aspects of Buddhist ethics. The principles mentioned above not only guide the individual to refine and shape one’s personality to become a reliable, skillful person but also can contribute to the peace and well-being of society.
The recent scholarship on Buddhist ethics has made tremendous contributions in addressing social issues such as deviance, crime, and social injustice and global issues such as climate change and environmental crisis. One of the Tibetan spiritual masters, Kongtrul presents three ethics or vows every human must pursue. Personal liberation (pratimoksa), awakening mind (bodhicitta), and the awareness holder (vidyadhara). These ethical principles are not simply a system or rules; they are fundamentally a rational application born out of several stages of discourses in Buddhist
- Françoise The Cakravartin-King: Symbolism of the Bhutanese Monarchy.2003,p.253
theories. These ethics are a universal way that guides individuals to become righteous, grounded in altruism and non-violence. Once these qualities are achieved, one is in the perfect peace of saint (arhat); eventually, with multiple virtuous acts, one achieves Bodhisattva and Buddhahood.49
Compassion (Bodhichitta) is considered a fundamental quality of an individual to attain the state of Bodhisattva. No actions will be caused fault or constraint if committed out of compassionate concern. Twenty verses on the Bodhisattva’s commitments state:
“When one’s action springs from compassionate concern, love,
or virtuous intention, no fault is incurred.” 50
When one acts out of three motives: compassion, concern, love, and virtuous intention, it is about one showing interest in the other’s benefit. Thus, it explains why these motives are vital for achieving good causes for an individual and the larger society.
The indestructible means to achieve an ecological consciousness is through the awakening mind, which generates compassion and eventually reinforces a person’s ethics. Kontrul Lodro Thaye writes: “Practitioners who have preferred pristine awareness are beyond codes of behavior.” One who has achieved awareness has surpassed all the notions of duality, subject and object, self and other. Moreover, these are the pledges of a person to recognize everything around them as one interdependent being. How can we address global crises such as climate change and environmental crises?
The lack of effective communication regarding individual participation in environmental affairs, especially between Western and Asia, has been a cause of environmental, societal, and economic problems and costs. Buddhism and deep ecology present the teachings of Buddha, particularly Dharma (the truth), their relationship with deep ecology, and the participation of individuals in the decision-making process to address these issues. In the book
- Jamgon Kongtrul Lodro Buddhist Ethics,pp. 23-24 50 Ibid., p. 199.
Earth in Balance: Ecology and Human Spirit AL Gore writes: “The more deeply I search for the roots of the global environmental crisis, the more I am convinced that it is an outer manifestation of an inner crisis that is, for lack of a better word, spiritual.”51 Nevertheless, what makes inner peace which can positively impact the outer world? Buddha posited that the six perfections are one essential essence of Buddhism to guide an individual to be selfless. It is through compassionate concern, love, care, and virtuous actions. Furthermore, it is a quality of Bodhisattva which not only makes a better society to live in but also shapes an individual to lead a spiritual life.
Between the last decade of the 20th century and the first decades of the 21st, eco-Buddhist scholars and Buddhist practitioners have realized the strength in the resources of Buddhist principles to build a Buddhist ecological ethic. A concept such as ‘dependent origination,’ the principles of ‘loving-kindness and compassion’, and several ideas in classical Buddhist schools of thought recommend that Buddhism has continuously remained attuned, particularly to the environment. At the same time, several critics have made to the eco-Buddhists claiming that the dependent origination is an abstract idea rather than providing a grounding environmental ethic. Nevertheless, rather than only focusing on universal concepts, other Buddhist ethics, rituals, and symbols are used for developing contemporary environmentalism.52
From the very early phase of the Buddhist tradition and then throughout spread of Buddhism in Asia, through practices, doctrines, and stories, the coexistence of Buddhism and the environment is solid. Various Indian Buddhist narratives portray multiple stories of co-being between humans and other species such as monks transforming snakes into Buddhist deities. In return, monks are protected by snakes or dragons.53 Indeed, co-
- Daniel Henning, Ph,D. A Manual of Buddhism and Deep Ecology,p.5
- William Buddhism and the Environment,pp. 1-2
being is possible if one pursues the qualities of Bodhisattvas, such as ethics, altruism, and virtuous action.
The set of Buddhist principles, the Eightfold Path, provides a paradigm to lead a fulfilling and ethical life. Originally, the Eightfold Path is envisioned for spiritual development as a set of principles. Nevertheless, it can be applied to many aspects of life, including environmental protection and addressing social crises such as inequality, crime, domestic violence, etc. The Eightfold Path includes right understanding, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. Following the Eightfold Path can help individuals achieve greater spiritual awareness and liberation from suffering. The Eightfold Path is a crucial concept in Buddhist philosophy and practice. It is a set of principles that guide individuals toward enlightenment. The Eightfold Path consists of three main categories: Wisdom, Ethical Conduct, and Mental Discipline. Concerning environmental protection, three principles of the Eightfold Path that are particularly relevant are Right View, Right Intention, and Right Action. 54
The principles of the eightfold path, mainly, right view, right intention, and right action, play a more significant role in shaping individuals and society. The right view permeates to have a correct understanding of the world. In the context of one’s relation with environmental protection, right view helps one comprehend the interconnectedness of all things in the natural world and know the implication of human actions on the environment. This includes understanding the causal relation, the effect of one’s action on environmental degradation, such as climate change, deforestation, and pollution. Similarly, the Right Intention guides one to commit sincere and ethical actions. Right Intention motivates a genuine, compassionate concern for the environment’s well-being and assurance of ecological living practices. This comprises nurturing
- p.15
- Bhikkhu The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the End of Suffering, pp. 12-39
a sense of empathy and concern towards other beings, including humans and non-humans, and recognizing the importance of preserving the environment for future generations. Right Action Right Action in a way that is moral, accountable, and helpful to oneself and others. Right Action is the effect caused by the right view and right intention. It involves conscious and righteous choice in doing things that contribute to less environmental impairment to stimulate sustainability. For instance, the action contributes to reducing one’s carbon footprint, conserving natural resources, and supporting environmentally-friendly practices and policies.
The law of karma (causal effect) explains how understanding human interaction with the environment can have different consequences. There is no way that one has shuddered as it’s a consequence created by one’s action. It explicates in the ‘Sūtra of a Hundred Actions”
“The joys and sorrows of beings
All comes from their actions, said the Buddha.
The Diversity of actions
Creates the diversity of beings
And impels indeed is this set of actions!”55
It is very analytically postulated in the Sūtras of instructions to the king that, neither the possessions, power, or wealth will follow. However, wherever the being comes from and goes, one’s action will follow like one’s own shadow. Thus, the effect of action may take the time or will be immediate, but however, it will never fade away. In this regard, the concept of karma in Buddhism is not a mere abstract of the philosophy of birth and rebirth but an actual reality one experiences in everyday life. Karma is, therefore, not imposed by divine or supreme beings but rather a consequence created or caused by own psychosomatic actions.
- Patrul ‘The words of my Perfect Teacher.’’ United States of
America. Second Edition 1998,p. 118
Buddhist karma does not rely on the supreme agent or god to explain what causes the action to come into being. In this way, one is solely responsible for own actions. This also indicates that we are what we have created and shall be what we create. Dhammapada (Chos-kyi-tseg-ched) asserts, “Not in the sky, not in the midst of the sea, nor anywhere else on earth is there a spot where a man may be freed from the consequences of evil deeds. By oneself evil is done, by oneself one suffers. By oneself, evil is undone, by oneself one is purified.”56
The principle of Karma became an inescapable law of individual duty and impartial justice based on the actions caused by one. Here, the nature of these actions has to be taken into consideration in the form of threefold: ‘verbal actions,’ ‘bodily actions,’ and ‘mental actions.’ The moral meaning of these three actions is different. Speech and bodily behaviors are physical actions in nature, which are expressions of thoughts (mental actions). Therefore, verbal or bodily actions result from mental action, which remains throughout the circle of existence. The treasury of Precious qualities highlights,
“When the eagle soars up, high above the earth,
its shadow for the while is nowhere to be seen;
Yet bird and shadow still are linked. So too our actions:
When conditions come together, their effects are clearly seen.”57
It explains that our actions are like an eagle taking off and flying very high into the sky. For a time, its shadow disappears. Nevertheless, it does not mean that shadow of a bird is faded or has become non-existent. When the eagle finally flies down and lands on the ground, its shadow still is very similar to what existed when an eagle took a fly from the ground; they are so connected. Similarly, our past actions, whether good or bad, may be obscure or invisible for a moment. However, the consequences of an action caused will not fail to leave us in the end. It is where Patruel Rinpoche who is the author of ‘the words of my perfect teacher’
- Karma and Rebirth in Buddhism, pp. 14-15
- The Words of my Perfect Teacher,p. 119
preaches, “How could not be so for ordinary beings like us, when even the Buddhas and Arhats, who have rid themselves of all karmic and emotional obscurations, still have to accept the effects of past actions?”58
In this regard, the Buddhist theory on the law of cause and effect is all about the actions committed by one in the form of verbal, physical, and mental, which have to be experienced in the form of harmful or god effect when the time is right for it to come. More significantly, in all Buddhist schools of explanation on law karma, mental action remains the primary cause to the verbal and physical actions. Nevertheless, the Buddhist understanding of karma is also explained in the modifiability of karma. It states that anything created must be destroyable. Therefore, as one’s impure intention produces harmful or unethical karma, it is applicable to modify in the present or the future with a pure mind.
Conclusion
While the principles of Buddhism, often described as the qualities of Bodhisattvas, one of the required methods to creating a fair and just society. Despite the principles of Buddhism such as compassion, ethic, and loving-kindness started as a way for practicing early Buddhist schools of tradition, it strongly can be applied in everyday livelihood. Individuals can embody the Bodhisattva ideal in everyday life experience, developing compassion and altruism in individual’s daily lives. In addition, the role of the Bodhisattva ideal is used in various arenas such as in political leadership, environmental activism, and addressing social issues such as environmental problems, social inequality, and domestic violence.
Drawing from both Buddhist commentaries and contemporary
texts, the analysis provided a practical tips and strategies for
- p.119
developing human qualities such as empathy, kindness, and generosity for creating a fair and just world. The principles of Buddhism, such as ethics, compassionate concern, altruism, love, and care for others, can lead to co-being, the well-being of an individual, and one’s environment. Similarly, appreciating a law of causal effect can directly impact freeing the world of turmoil or societal crises. In a nutshell, ethics, moral principles, and virtuous actions as a quality of the Bodhisattva ideal are relevant and current in this world.
***
References
- Bhikkhu The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the End of Suffering. PP. 12-39
- Bluth, , & Neff, K. D. (2018). New frontiers in understanding the benefits of self- compassion. Self and Identity, 17(6), 605-608.
- Ch’en, Kenneth Kuan Sheng. “The Bodhisattva Ideal in Chinese Buddhism.” In The
- Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahāyāna
, edited by Bhikkhu Nyanatusita. Kandy, Sri Lanka:
Buddhist Publication Society, 1982.
- Ch’en, Kenneth Kuan Sheng. “The Bodhisattva Ideal in Chinese ” In The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahāyāna , edited by Bhikkhu Nyanatusita,
- Daniel Henning, Ph,D. A manual of Buddhism and Deep Ecology. 2002. Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc. Library of Congress. P.5
- Bhikkhu Nyanatusita himi. The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahāyāna, Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society Inc., 2013. BP625. – 240P.; 22cm.
- Françoise The Cakravartin-King: Symbolism of the Bhutanese Monarchy.
- Retrieved from https://karmachoden.wordpress. com/2016/03/22/book-review-titlethe-bodhisattva-king- in-action/.2003
- Jamgon Kongtrul Lodro Thaye. Buddhist Ethics. & edited by The International Translation Committee. Snow Lion Publication. 1998.PP.23-24
- Phrakhrusangkharak Thawee Abhayoa , Phramaha Wiruth Wirojanob , Chanathip Srithoc , Suraphon Promgund Leadership According to the Buddhist Concepts. Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education Vol.12 8 (2021), 2428-2433.
- Thubten “Karma and Rebirth in Buddhism.” Bulletein of Tibetology. Retrieved from ttps://himalaya. socanth.cam.ac.uk/ collections/ journals/ bot/ pdf/ bot_1996_01_02.pdf
- Translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee. The Noble Sūtra “The Bodhisattva Maitreya’s Birth in the Heaven of Joy”. Toh 199 Degé Kangyur, 61 (mdo sde, tsa), folios 296.b–303.a. P. 2(section 1.2)
- Vo Van Hoi, Asst. Prof. L.T. Dr. Banjob Bannaruji, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull. An Analytical Study of Bodhisattva Concept in Mahāyāna Buddhism. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018).
- William Liberation through Compassion and Kindness: The Buddhist Eightfold Path asa Philosophy of Life. Journal of Philosophy of Life Vol.3, No.1 (January 2013):68-82 [Essay].
- William Buddhism and the Environment. Department of Philosophy, Malboro College, Barre Center for Buddhist Studies, Emerson College Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.721 Published online: 28 June 2021. PP. 1-2
- Yabuuchi The Ideal of the Bodhisattva King in Sri
Lanka and the Reform of the Sangha. Journal of Indian and
Buddhist Studies Vol. 55, No. 3, March 2007.
***
THE BODHISATTVA IDEAL IN NĀGĀNANDA WORK
Ph.D. Scholar Thich Nu Tinh Hy- Vo Thi Hau
Andhra University Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
Abstract
n ancient Indian literature, the genre of drama influenced
profound Buddhism. It is the famous work “Nāgānanda” or “Joy of the Serpents” written by Sanskrit and Prakit in the seventh century CE and attributed to the king Harṣa (Harṣadeva or Harṣavardhana), who ruled the great kingdom. It told the story of Prince Jīmūtavāhana, who sacrificed his own life to save the snakes that became the object of food for the king of birds, Garuḍa. This implies a great loving-kindness of a Bodhisattva. King Harṣa built the character Jīmūtavāhana with the ideal of a bodhisattva who wishes to bring happiness to others. Regarding the content of the play, the bodhisattva ideal of Jīmūtavāhana is depicted according to essential points: servicing to his parents, cultivation of spiritual life; non-violence towards the enemy; loving-kindness, and perfection of giving or the sacrifice of his own life to the welfare of others. This perfection of giving is similar to the story of the Gautama Buddha, Previous Life Stories in narratives of Jātaka when he saw a tigress emaciated and exhausted after giving birth, and due to immeasurable compassion, he gave his own life to feed the tiger. This is common ground for the writer to decide to choose this topic for the paper.
Keywords: Nāgānanda, king Harṣa, Prince Jīmūtavāhana,
bodhisattva ideal
History and mythology, Nagananda.
- Introduction
- The author
King Harṣa ruled a large empire in north India from 606 CE to 647 CE. He wrote three plays, Ratnāvali, Prānivadharkraurya, and Nāgānanda, in which Nāgānanda was very well-known. He was a Brahmin follower and later converted to Buddhism. He was the successor of the Vardhana dynasty, where he ruled and became peaceful and prosperous. As the Chinese pilgrim, Hiuen Tsang, who came to India during Harṣa’s reign, he recorded some information about King Harṣa, who had great loving-kindness, justice, and generosity. He followed the spirit of non-violence against wars. 59 He supported the Nalanda University by reducing taxes and was the last king to rule a vast empire in India before the Muslims invaded. The play Nāgānanda has been translated and edited into languages: English, Tibetan, Hindi, and Marathi. They are similar to the content but change a little in the characters’ conversation in the story. The play takes place in five scenes with the main character Jīmūtavāhana; princess Malayavatī; companion Vidūṣaka; prince Mitravasu; the snake śaṅkhacūḍa, the king of bird, Garuḍa and along with the other supporting characters.
2. The brief of the content of the work
Nāgānanda is a narrative story for Prince Jīmūtavāhana called, the Hero who gave up his own body to save serpents from the King of bird Garuḍa. The play is briefly described as follows:
First of all, the play begins with the two Nāndī verses in praise of the Gautama Buddha. Then, the dialogue of a stage manager about the group of kings who were an assemblage of good qualities combined together. Then he called his wife to start a play that narrated Jīmūtavāhana, who went to the forest to serve his parents by abandoning the sovereign for the sake of others.
In the first scene: giving up wealth, Jīmūtavāhana decides to leave the Kingdom, pass the days of his youth to serve his parents, and go to Malaya Mountain looking for a hermitage suitable for dwelling. He went to the Gauri temple with his friend Vidūṣaka. There, he saw Malayavatī. Her beauty, charm, and decorum made him fall in love with her at first sight. However, suddenly, the first meeting is interrupted by a sage who sends a message to Chancellor
- Murty, R. K. 2015. “Harsha’s Nagananda: An Appraisal in the Light of the Rasa Siddhanta” in IUP Journal of English Studies. Vol. 10, No. 3
Kauṥika and takes her away to conduct midday oblation.
In the second scene: opens with a conversation between two maids of Princess Malayavatī. The Princess got a fever in love at first sight with Jīmūtavāhana, and then she came to the hermitage with her maid. The Prince also got lovesick with her in his heart. He dreamed about his beloved woman and drew a picture of her on the stone. When she came, the Princess heard the conversation between the Viduṣaka and the Prince; she thought he had another woman. The misunderstanding was rising through the conversation between the Prince and Mitravasu. Then, she would kill herself with the noose around her neck. Then the hero took her hand and threw away the noose. At the end of the second scene, the time of the nuptial day would be announced.
In the third scene: the nuptial day of Jīmūtavāhana and Malayavatī, took place in a garden full of flowers with funny characters such as Viduṣaka, Vita, and Cheta. Those characters were very interested in their funny stories. At the end of this scene was Prince Mitravasu, who came to see the Prince with some other businesses. He said Matanga was overwhelming your kingdom and asked the Prince for instruction.
In the fourth scene starts with the mother of Mitra-vasu, who says the doorkeeper delivered these red garments to Malayavati and the son-in-law. At that time, Jīmūtavāhana and Mitravasu went to see the sea tides. There, Mitravasu told the heap of bones of Nagas. Then, the hero arose a desire to sacrifice to save serpents. Significantly, when he heard from the conversation between the mother of Śaṅkhacūḍa (Nepathye) and the son Śaṅkhacūḍa, he determined to scarify his body to Garuḍa. Garuḍa had a thought that took Jīmūtavāhana out and ate him on the top of Malaya.
In the fifth scene: Jīmūtavāhana was killed by the king of birds, Garuḍa. The parents of Jīmūtavāhana and Malayavatī felt pain when they heard that news. Ṥaṅkhacūḍa found Jīmūtavāhana via the trail of his blood. Garuda found that Jīmūtavāhana was a great being who did not feel pain; actually, he seemed delighted, then he felt shame to show his face with the parents of Jīmūtavāhana.
Garuḍa listened to the instruction of the hero, and he shall not kill any beings. Finally, Jīmūtavāhana was revived by the water jar of the Goddess Gauri, together with all serpents who were also revived.
II. Main discussion
Jīmūtavāhana practices the Bodhisattva Ideal
The practice Ideal of Bodhisattva is a characteristic of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The term “Bodhisattva” literally means a “being” who determine to become a Buddha. According to Mahāyāna tradition, a Bodhisattva, instead of dwelling in Nirvāṇa, courses innumerable lifetimes toward enlightenment and leads living beings going on the path of enlightenment. With this ideal, King Harṣa described Jīmūtavāhana following the spirit of a bodhisattva.
Servicing his parents.
Jīmūtavāhana is the successor of a great kingdom, possessing much wealth, but he is willing to abandon everything to care for his parents on Malaya Mountain. He knows the youth is temporary, and passion is the abode of the youth. Thus, he desires to take good care of his parents:
rāgasyāspadamityavaimi na hi me dhvaṃsīti na pratyayaḥ kṛtyākṛtyavicāraṇāsu vimukhaṃ ko vā na vetti kṣitau |
evaṃ nindyamapīdamindriyavaśaṃ prītyai bhaved yauvanaṃ bhaktyā yāti yadītthameva pitarau śuśrūṣamāṇasya me ||6||
“I understand that the youth is abode of passion; my conviction is indeed not perishable. Who again on the earth that does not know averse to the consideration of what should be done and what should not be done? This youth is blameable in this way being under the control of senses. It would be to delight, if it passed in the same manner while I am devoted servicing my parents”.60
Nāgānanda of Śrīharṣa. Delhi: Chaukhamba Sanskrit
- Act. I, verse. 5.
Servicing parents is the highest purpose to perfect morality. According to the Sigālaka Sutta in Dīgha Nikāya, Buddha taught that the householder’s son pays homage to six directions; the East denotes mother and father.61 Thus, servicing parents is to show gratitude to his parents and is also the foundation for spiritual development.
2. The Cultivation of Spiritual Life
The cultivation of spiritual life is expressed by a form that does not follow an extreme practice or a luxury lifestyle. Nevertheless, it expresses a way of life between these two extremes. It issues from self-observation to spiritual development.
“bahudivasaparibhogena dūrīkṛtaṃ samitkuśakusumam | upayutkamūlaphalakandanīvāraprāyamidaṃ sthānaṃ vartate | tanmalayaparvataṃ gatvā nivāsayogyamāśramapadaṃ nirūpayoti
| tad yāvanmalayameva gacchāvaḥ |”
“This place has sacred fuel, kuśa grass and flowers lying at a distance on account of their use for many days, and has the fruits, roots, bulds and rice almost used up. Going to the Malaya Mountain, therefore, looking for a hermitage fit for residence”.62
Religious life does not focus on a luxury lifestyle; it is enough to sustain a healthy body. Despite Jīmūtavāhāna, who was the ruler of a kingdom, he gave up all wealth, throne, fame, and especially, the passion of youth… for religious purposes. Just as the Gautama Buddha abandoned everything to become an ascetic, lived a homeless life, and archived a Fully Perfect Enlightenment One. Thus, in the process of cultivation with constant effort, King Harsa depicted well the main character Jīmūtavāhāna who possessed the virtues of a sage. This is a unique element of the play.
3. Non-violence to enemy
- Dīgha Nikāya – The Long Discourses of the Publisher:
Wisdom Publications. p 461.
- Nāgānanda of Śrīharṣa. Delhi: Chaukhamba Sanskrit
- 1923. I, verse. 7.
From the beginning, one of the reasons causing wars in the world is greed, anger, and delusion. The spirit of Buddhism is non- violence, known as Ahimsa, and non-Buddhist scriptures show any article supporting violence. Non-violence is a way to solve conflict. Non-violence is a prominent feature of compassion and the basis of Buddhism. Similarly, in the third scene of “Nāgānanda,” a report from Mitravasu related to Matanga who has overrun his kingdom, Mitravasu asked Jīmūtavāhāna for this instruction.
Mitrāvasuḥ: svanāśāya yuṣmadīyaṃ kila rājyam ākrāntam. Nāyakaḥ: (sa| harṣam ātma|gatam) api nāma satyam etat syāt. Mitrāvasuḥ: tad| ucchittaye mām ājñāpayaatu kurmāraḥ.||15||63
“Mitrāvasu: they are saying that he has overrun your kingdom, to his own destruction.”
Nāyaka: (happily to himself) If only this were true.
Mitrāvasu: Therefore, the Prince should order his extirpation.”
To reply to the request from Mitrāvasu, Jīmūtavāhana
understood which one was more important to do.
Nāyaka: Svaśarīram api par’arthe yaḥ dadyām ayācitaḥ kṛpayā, rājyasya kṛte sa kathaṃ prāṇivadhakrauryam anumanye?64
Api ca kleśān vihāya śatrubuddhir eva me n’anyatra. Yadi te ‘smatpriyaṃ kartum īhā, tad anukampyatām asau kleśadāsīkṛtas tapasvī.
“Hero: When I would actually give even my own body for the sake of another person, out of pity and without being asked, how could I agree to the savagery of killing living beings, on account of the kingdom?”
“In fact, I don’t feel that anything is my enemy other than mental defilement. If you want to be dear to me, then feel sympathy
- How the Nagas Were Pleased. Translated by Andrew Skilton. 3, verse 15
- How the Nagas Were Pleased. Translated by Andrew Skilton. 3, verse 17
for the person who is tortured by being enslaved to the defilements”.
The above paragraph expresses that King Harṣa used the doctrine of Non-violence to rule his kingdom. He understood that the greatest enemy was defilement in his mind. In this play, Jīmūtavāhana is a symbol of tolerance and sympathy for those who are tortured in the defilements. This states a deep significance to the spirit of non-violence in Buddhism and makes the play beautiful.
4. Loving-kindness
What makes this play is loving-kindness. It is a desire for others to be happy.65 This is one of the four divine abidings (Brahmavihāra).
“svaśarīrataḥ prabhṛti parārthameva sarva mayā paripālyate | yat tu svayaṃ na dīyate, tat tātānurodhāt |”
“Everything beginning with my body is taken care of by me for the sake of others. That again, it is kingdom is not given away by self, is out of regard for my father”.66
This paragraph indicates that Jīmūtavāhana gave up everything consisting of his body for the benefit of others. This establishes the theme of the play. His heart was filled with loving kindness as a bodhisattva who had an endless love for the benefit of others without conditions. This is clearly stated in the case of saving Śaṅkhacūḍa.
The Prince Jīmūtavāhana was extremely painful when serpents worshiped Garuḍa.
jāyante ca mriyante ca mādṛśāḥ kṣudrajantavaḥ| parārthebaddhakakṣāṇāṃ tvādṛśāmudbhavaḥ kutaḥ ?||16||67 “Insignificant creatures like myself are born and die. Whence
The Princeton Dictionary of Publisher: Princeton University
Press 2014. p.424
- Nāgānanda of ŚrīharṣaDelhi: Chaukhamba Sanskrit
- Act. I, after verse. 6.
- Nāgānanda of Śrīharṣa, Delhi: Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratishthan,
1923, Act. IV, after verse. 16.
[can there be] the birth of persons like you who [are ready to] offer [their] bodies for the sake of others?
Hero felt pity for creatures, their suffering as his suffering. Equality of life is for all. Birth and death are insignificant; thus, he offered his body to save serpents.
mriyate mriyamāṇe yā tvayi jīvati jīvati|
tāṃ yadīcchasi jīvantīṃ rakṣātmānaṃ mamāsubhiḥ ||17|| 68
“If you wish her to live, who would die when you die and live when you live, save yourself using my life.”
Hero felt pity for the suffering of a mother of her misfortune if something terrible happened to her only child. Thence, he advised him to continue living for his mother. He understood their problem as his own problem. This expresses a profound compassion for sacrifice to save Śaṅkhacūḍa.
5. Perfection of giving
Offering act to save Śaṅkhacūḍa becomes the major theme of the play. In Buddhism, the Perfection of Giving means that there are three kinds of giving: “gift of material goods,” “gift of fearlessness,” and “gift of dharma.”69
The motivation for giving is as vital as objects are given. Giving leads to ending defilement and attaining liberation. By this way, receiving a pair of garments at the right time, Hero felt delighted as an excellent opportunity for himself to relieve misery for the benefit of others.
Nāyakaḥ: vāsoyugamidaṃ raktaṃ prāptakāle mam’āgatam Karoti mahatīṃ prītiṃ par’arthaṃ deham ujjhataḥ. ||20|| 70
“Nāyaka: The pair of red garments that have come to me at
Nāgānanda of Śrīharṣa. Delhi: Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratishthan,
1923, Act. IV, verse. 17.
- The Princeton Dictionary of Publisher: Princeton University
Press 2014. p. 212
- How the Nagas Were Pleased. Translated by Andrew Skilton. fourth, verse. 20
the right time. Makes me greatly happy as I surrender my body to help another.”
Love to his wife Malayavatī, and even his parents are less happier than offering to help others. This expresses that happiness in mundane life is temporary; his mind transcends ordinary happiness.
As a Bodhisattva born for the welfare of living beings, his giving of his body is original from pure motivation without attachment or expectation.
saṃrakṣatā pannagamadya puṇyaṃ mayā’rjitaṃ yatsvaśarīradānāt|
bhave bhave tena mamaivamevaṃ bhūyāt parārthaḥ khalu dehalābhaḥ||25|| 71
“By the merit, I have accrued today by protecting a snake through the gift of my own body, in every birth may I in this very way acquire a body in order to help others.”
This giving is not only a full accomplishment to Perfection but also mental development to attain enlightenment finally. Giving as such a way, he was able to reduce his ego. Finally, Garuda was instructed and awakened from the sleep of ignorance. Garuda felt remorse for what he has done in the past.
Garuḍaḥ: ajñānanidrāśayito bhavatā pratibodhitaḥ Sarvaprāṇivadhād eṣa virato’dya prabhṛty aham. ||26||72
“You have awakened me from the sleep of ignorance. From today onwards I shall refrain from killing any beings.”
Thus, the value of the play is the sacrifice of the character Jīmūtavāhana for the snakes’ welfare. Additionally, the other significant fact, Garuḍa stopped harming nāgas. This act brought endless joy to all serpents. This implies that the custom of such a worshiped tradition is one of the reasons causing fear and distress
- How the Nagas Were Pleased. Fourth act, 25.
- How the Nagas Were Pleased. Fifth act, 26.
for all living beings. This custom tradition should abandon. Therefore, the character Jīmūtavāhana with great loving-kindness and compassion, symbolizes a noble ideal, converting not only unwholesome but also changing a deep custom that has existed for a long time. This scene touch to the heart of the audience. It is a subtle combination to convey the Bodhisattva ideal in the real life of people.
III. Conclusion
Jīmūtavāhana in drama reflected the real life of King Harṣa in his old age. The Nāgānanda drama sincerely represents the implication of the Bodhisattva ideal by practicing the perfection of ethics and giving. Although the work Nāgānanda only praise the Lord of Buddha with the first two verses Nāndī, the spirit of the play Nāgānanda depicted through the main character, Jīmūtavāhana indicates a profound humanity in a literature work. Loving- kindness and sympathy is one of the remedies for converting the mind. Moreover, a special point in this play, having converted a Buddhist follower, the author used skillful means to combine the Vedic tradition and the ideal of Bodhisattva in Mahāyāna. This combination implies that the ideal of Bodhisattva denotes a way of life wholesome and cultivates spiritual development in a multi- religious social context.
In the modern social context, the strong development of science and technology, problems such as moral reduction, diseases, disasters, polluted environment, poverty, and war cause a significant challenge to governments of all countries and society for various reasons. The ideal of bodhisattva’s path in the Play of Nāgānanda can be applied in the present context. Although there is reason; taking care of parents is basic morality to build a sustainable development society; looking after all animals and protecting the earth is to minimize the polluted environment, disasters as well as diseases for expressing loving-kindness and responsibility to all living beings; using non-violence is as a remedy to avoid conflict wars; applying sympathy or loving-kindness with all living beings as a therapeutic method is to transform defilement in their mind;
Those makes the difference for the play of Nāgānanda with the two previous plays: Ratnāvalī (pearl necklace) and Priyadarśika (gracious lady) of the king Harṣa. The play’s core is to convey messages of the King Harṣa to make a better world and emphasize spiritual development towards the ideal of Bodhisattva for the welfare of oneself and sentient beings.
APPENDIXES
Based on the Nāgānanda work, these pictures were taken at the Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies at Pune University in 2019. It was guided by Dr. Mrs Lata Deokar and were performed by MA students. Those pictures were recorded at the end of the fourth and fifth acts, one of the most important scenes of the work, Nāgānanda.
Appendix 1: In the Stage of Pune University
Actors: The mother of Śaṅkhacūḍa (Nepathye), door-keeper, Śaṅkhacūḍa, Mitrāvasu, Garuḍa, Jīmūtavāhana, maid, Viduṣaka and along with Venerable Dhammajoti, Professor Mahesh Deokar, lecturers.
Appendix 2: Mitrāvasu was telling a heap bones of Nagas
Jīmūtavāhana and Mitrāvasu
Appendix 3: The conversation between the mother of
Śaṅkhacūḍa (Nepathye) and the son snakes Śaṅkhacūḍa.
The mother of Śaṅkhacūḍa (Nepathye) and the Son Śaṅkhacūḍa
Appendix 4: Jīmūtavāhana was killed by the king of birds, Garuḍa
Jīmūtavāhana and the king of birds, Garuḍa
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References
Books
- Dīgha Nikāya – The Long Discourses of the Buddha. Maurice Walshe.Publisher: Wisdom Publications. P 461.
- Saṃyutta Nikāya. A Connected Discourses of The Buddha. Edited by Bhikkhu Usa: Wisdom Publication. 2000.
- Nāgānanda of Śrīharṣa. Edited by D.Karmarkar, Delhi: Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratishthan. 1923.
- How the Nagas Were Pleased. Translated by Andrew
Skilton. New York University Press, 2009.
- Jātakamālā or Garland of Birth-Stoies. Āryaśūra and Tr. J.S. Speyer. Published by London 1895.
- The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. E. Buswell Jr. and Donald S. Lopez Jr. Publisher: Princeton University Press 2014.
- “Harsha’s Nagananda: An Appraisal in the Light of the Rasa Siddhanta” in IUP Journal of English Studies. R. K. Murty. 2015. Vol. 10, No. 3.
- Dramatic works: South Asia, in: Brill’s Encyclopedia of Buddhism online. Editors: Jonathan A.Silk, Oskar von Hinuber, Published online: 2020:
Websites
- https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/ encyclopedia-of-buddhism/dramatic-works-south-asia- COM_0054
- com. “History and mythology, Nagananda.” Blog, 01 December 2008. https://hmindia.blogspot.com/2008/12/ ack-036-nagananda_3557.html.
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APPLYING SKILLFUL MEANS IN THE FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (INDUSTRY 4.0)
Thich Nu Dieu Tri
Research Scholar at Gautam Buddha University, India
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Abstract
uddhism appeared in this world more than 2500 years ago to meet the need to help sentient beings overcome
suffering. The fourth industrial revolution emerged, bringing material needs to people. This is an inevitable trend in the law of human development in this world, and Buddhism does not go against that trend. This article presents the Bodhisattva’s skillful means in the 4.0 era. The content includes opportunities, challenges, and solutions to the Bodhisattva idea in the present life.
Keyword: Buddhism, the fourth industrial revolution, skill means, Bodhisattva idea
Introduction
The fourth industrial revolution73 is also known as the
- Bai, Chunguang; Dallasega, Patrick; Orzes, Guido; Sarkis, Joseph, Industry 0 technologies assessment: A sustainability perspective, International Journal of Production Economics, 2020, p. 229.
Industrial Revolution in science and technology, has made human society achieve many significant developments, especially in the application of science, engineering and technology to life. Its value besides bringing great value in increasing productivity as well as satisfying the material and spiritual needs of people, more and more people are suffering from stress, depression and disorientation in life. Against that background, Buddhism needs to promote its sacred duty to fulfill its mission of entering the world, benefiting human beings and achieving the ultimate goal of liberating sentient beings from ignorance and afflictions in the world by the Bodhisattva’s skillful means following the Buddha’s teachings and the way of practice must suit the practitioner’s ability. This is also an excellent opportunity for Buddhism to adapt and take advantage of the achievements of the new era to serve Buddhism in Communication and Dhamma teaching. Spreading Buddhism in the new era with the Industrial Revolution 4.0 has expanded the scope and increased the audience to receive the Buddha’s teachings and understand the organization of the Vietnam Buddhist Sangha. Because at this time, spreading Buddhism is not only performed in a monastery, temple or on every significant occasion such as Buddha’s Birthday,and Vu Lan festival, which already has a large number of Buddhists gathered like today but its method is implemented by many new ways and means of the Internet of Things (IoT) (including the popular social networking services in Vietnam: Google+, Facebook; Twitter; YouTube; Instagram; Zalo; Viber). ; tango; clip.vn...); of Cloud Computing with Big data... to convey and connect the content of the Dharma to the objects. Thanks to that, the content of the teaching of the Dharma is accessible not only to Buddhists but also to those who are not and are not Buddhists.
I) The definition of Skillful means (S. upāya kauśalya; P. upāya kosalla)
It may be explained as skillfulness or wisdom in choosing and adopting the means or expedients for converting others or helping
them. It concerns the six perfections(pāramitā) f the Bodhisattva74 ideal- the first five perfections are said to be the processes of performing skillful means (upaya) to attain the sixth perfection corresponding to the development of wisdom (prajna), a prominent thought in the Mahāyāna scriptures, but the skillful means in the Pāli Canon, has not received the attention of scholars. According to Oxford reference dictionary, the concept of ‘skillful means’ is of considerable importance in Mahāyāna Buddhism and is explained very early on in texts such as the Upāya-kauśalya Sūtra, the Lotus Sūtra, and the Vimalakirti discourses (Vimalakīrti-nirdeśūtra).75 In the second chapter of the Lotus Sūtra, the Buddha introduces the doctrine of skillful means and demonstrates it through parables throughout the text. The text describes him as a wise man or a kind father with his advice but his foolish children to escape from the burning house. To encourage them to follow his advice, he resorted to ‘skillful means’, realizing that this was the only way to lead the ignorant and deluded onto the path to liberation. He causes a lie message to be sent his children in order to induce them to use a certain beneficial way with his Upāya kauśalya. The Saddharma Puṇḍarīka teaches that Gautam Buddha really attained Enlightenment many aeon ago and lives forever; He returns this world to be born as a man and attain bodhi under the tree. He does so to help mankind by his Upāya kauśalya. An advanced Bodhisattva can assume different forms in order to preach to different people. Hence, it is clear that a certain amount of trickery and falsehood is regarded as permissible. Although this involves a certain degree of deception, such as lying, the Buddha is exonerated from all responsibility as his sole motive is compassionate concern for all sentient beings. At the root of this idea is the view that the Buddha’s teachings are essentially a temporary means to bring beings to enlightenment (bodhi) and that the teachings he gives
- Bodhisattva, Retrieved from 14/04/2023 from https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Bodhisattva.
- Upaya-kausalya, Retrieved from 14/04/2023 from https://www.
oxfordreference.com/upāya-kauśalya can be different: What may be appropriate at one time may not be appropriate at another time. This concept was used by the Mahāyāna to justify innovations in doctrine, and to describe the early teachings of the Buddha as constrained and constrained by the poor spiritual potential of his early followers. In Mahāyāna , skillful means becomes a legitimate method used by Buddhas and Bodhisattvas whenever the welfare of sentient beings warrants it. Motivated by great compassion (mahākaruṇā), Bodhisattvas are seen in some sources (such as the Upāya-kauśalya Sūtra) violating the precepts and performing actions that would otherwise be morally criticized. The basic assumption of the doctrine is that all teachings are in any case temporary and that once liberation is achieved, one will find that Buddhism as a set of doctrines, Philosophy, and moral precepts are used only as a means to an end goal and that the teachings have no ultimate value. The equivalent term in the Pāli sources (upāya-kosalla), Gombrich observes: “It is true that the term ‘skillful means’, upāya-kauśalya, belongs to the later canon, but the masterful use it alludes, i.e., the skill of adapting speech to each audience was of great importance in the Pāli Canon.76
This term is mentioned in the Dīgha Nikāya on the Three Skills:
- Āyakosalla, the wisdom that pays attention to that which strengthens wholesome dhammas and brings down evil This is called skillful gain because wisdom gives rise to benefit.
- Skillful Damage (Apāyakosalla) is the knowledge that attends to that which strengthens evil and degrades well. This is called skillful harm because that wisdom brings
- Skillful means (Upāyakosalla) is the knowledge that
arranges the course of action to generate the above two cases.
This word is also mentioned in the Anguttara Nikāya.77 In
- Gombrich, Richard (2006). How Buddhism Began. New York:
Routledge, p.17
- Thích Minh Châu dịch (2005), Anguttara Nikaya III, Hà Nội: Tôn
Giáo, p.244.
general, in the Theravada tradition, skillful means refer to the teaching as a means of a raft to cross the suffering river, not leading to the ultimate goal of liberation.
II) The application of Skillful means in the present life
As mentioned above, skillful means is one of the six perfections of the Bodhisattva ideal. From that point of view, Bodhisattvas must integrate into real life, always go hand in hand with humanity, and make great vows to stay in the world to save sentient beings. Each of us needs to equip ourselves with The Five Kinds of Learning,78 which are the five knowledge that preachers need to have and understand - including knowing Buddhist scriptures, logical reasoning methods, language in communication and writing, proficiency in engineering technology, and science subjects, and Medicine is a subject of healing methods. These five are the equipment for a Bodhisattva to perfect Buddhist and secular studies. To be able to enter the world, a Bodhisattva needs to go through three processes, which are called Threefold wisdom śruta cintā bhāvanā79
The wisdom of listening and hearing (Sutta mayā Paññā )
The wisdom of contemplation and reflection (Cinta mayā Paññā)
The wisdom of meditation and application (Bhāvanā mayā Paññā)
Depending on the level of each sentient being, Bodhisattva skillfully teaches appropriate to that place’s background, time, and culture. The Lotus Sūtra also states: The former Buddhas used immeasurable and innumerable means, all the causes and conditions, and parables to expound the dharmas for sentient beings, as a downpour permeating all the trees, forests, large and
- Thích Thiên Hoa(2012),General Buddhism I , Hà Nôi, Tôn Giáo,
644-651.
- Three wisdom tools, Retrieved from 14/04/2023 from https://www. org/index.php?title=Three_wisdom_tools small trees, depending on each living can absorb is different... but in general, all have reached the fruit of liberation, Nirvana, and pure peace.80
II.1 Opportunity and challenge
The industrial revolution 4.0 is a trend, significant progress of humankind that no one can reverse. Monks and nuns with the responsibility of holding the torch of the Dharma, with the wisdom of a Buddhist disciple combined with the concept of “everything depends on conditions but do not change nature” need to learn, grasp and take advantage of this revolution achievements to apply on the field of teaching. By doing so, we will effectively propagate the wonderful teachings of the Buddha in the civilized age with the advanced achievements of science and technology. In addition, during the boom of the Industrial Revolution 4.0, the media has become an undeniable force in social life in some countries. Buddhism cannot stand aside in the continuous development trend of the digital age with the advantages and challenges facing each nation in the era of scientific and technological development. Currently, in the face of the country’s deep integration, the economy and the people’s life are constantly developing; a part of the bad guys at home and abroad always find ways to divide the spirit of religious solidarity and division. The nation’s great unity bloc caused insecurity and order to realize the intention of “peaceful evolution”. Those individuals have taken advantage of every opportunity in the virtual space, targeting the entire society by creating negative, contradictory, distorting information, deliberately smearing the pure religious life, and violating the monastic rule. This caused harm to the noble conduct of monks and nuns and the monastic life and faith of Buddhism in the hearts of the people.81 Today, along with the development of the industrial revolution 4.0, the existence
- Thích Trí Tịnh(2007), Lotus Sutra, ( Kinh Diệu Pháp Liên Hoa, Quyển Thứ Ba - Phẩm Dược Thảo Dụ Thứ Năm),.Tôn Giáo, Hà Nội, 61.
- Thich Minh Nhan, “Buddhist Communication in the Age of Digital Revolution” Retrieved from 14/04/2023 from https://vbgh.vn/index. php?language=vi&nv=news&op=thich-minh-nhan/truyen-thong-phat-giao- trong-ky-nguyen-cach-mang-cong-nghe-so-715.html
of a flat world, the widespread popularity of global social networks and the great birth of the Internet, the birth and application of Widespread use of workflow applications in a new era of creativity, a new generation of connectivity, laid the foundation for global collaboration with highly convenient but also hidden utilities— risks and challenges, but also opportunities. With the development of science and technology, Buddhist scriptures are no longer within the framework of monasteries. Many electronic versions of the Sūtras - Precepts - Commentaries are being completed in many languages. According to Thomas L. Friedman’s Flat World Theory, this is an essential flattening factor in Buddhism.82
In Buddhism, in the digital age, the barriers to primary source material are no more. Everyone has equal access to canonical content. Electronic versions on the Internet today, anyone who knows how to use a computer and the Internet can easily access as well as find the desired textual passages along with specific information related to them, corresponding to the paper versions. This is a great advantage for Buddhism, and it opens up the gate for everyone to enter the realm of Buddhist study.83 In the context of the information publishing boom shows the open function of the Internet, because when faced with the virtual world of the Internet, people express their views more openly. Information is no longer one-way as we used to complain, but it brings together almost many opposing views. This is an advantage for everyone to share the content of practice in Buddhism. In addition, the development of information technology also makes the printing and publishing Buddhist books in paper versions much more convenient. With the convenience of digital technology, we can easily gather documents
- The world is flat is a book written by Thomas Friedman, a diplomatic and economic columnist editor of the New York Times, published in A vivid illustration of the phenomenon of globalization, and advice on what to do to face the challenges and make the most of the opportunities that globalization brings.
- Thanh Hòa(2008), The Interaction of Buddhism with the Digital Age, Retrieved from 14/04/2023 from https://giacngo.vn/tuthienxahoi/2008/06/19/76D41B
and books. More resources to serve learning and research, as well as disseminating the spiritual values of Buddhism; the great benefit of monks and nuns is having a source of books for research at no cost or having to pay less fee compared to the paper version. With the “World Wide Web” capabilities, many Buddhist Study Websites were established. These websites make it easy for readers to access Buddhism and Buddhist studies, allowing Dharma talks and many special topics to be explored. Most temples have their Web sites, Buddhist associations also have their Web sites, Buddhist researchers have their Web sites, and even ordinary people can have their comments after lectures. They also can write articles by themselves to show views in many ways. We have seen the role of virtual space in the moderate Corona pandemic. In the state of social isolation, lockdowns to prevent epidemics, zoom, meet... tools have shown an effective role in maintaining online classes, and scientific conferences are constantly taking place. The virtual temple model helps Buddhists connect with monks and nuns in online lectures, online Buddhist ceremonies, and even important Buddhist ceremonies such as Buddha’s Birthday or Vu Lan are also held equally solemnly so that attendees can stay at home.
- Charity and social work: This is the aspect often seen as the precise incarnation of Selfless volunteering is an attribute of Buddhism. In particular, compared to before, the donation of funds from benefactors through social networks brings financial resources from many domestic and international places. This also contributes to solving economic problems in social welfare activities in the spirit of the Bodhisattva’s Giving (Dāna pāramī).
-Teaching and Communication: The rise of digital helps Dharma teaching and Media grow. Through digital platforms, everyone can become a teacher with contemporary lectures without organising a Dharma assembly or post-Dharma lectures, this diversity makes Buddhism expand human society by many different methods and means. With the growth of the media through modern IT technology, it has been maximizing the spread and incarnation of Buddhism: an immersive being with the breath of the life. The Engaged Buddhism84 is understood in Vietnamese as “ Socially Engaged Buddhism “, or “Applied Buddhism”.
New achievements in science and technology are also opportunities and challenges for Vietnamese Buddhism’s Dharma propagation in the coming time. However, besides those positive aspects, social networks also bring a lot of harm if young monks and nuns abuse social networks for non-Buddhist purposes like Ven. Thich Bao Nghiem commented: “Using social networks out of control, without mindfulness, that place will be the land where human lowly instincts are activated. People can say whatever nonsense they think without fear of being judged; people can swear at anyone they hate without fear of being unmasked… because they hide their real self behind nicknames and pictures that aren’t their real photos…85 Information technology explodes information on the Internet virtual network, leaving users always at risk of being infected if the ability to protect organs is not adequate. The virtual world always contains a lot of interesting information, causing curiosity. The flood of information has many negative effects on monastic life, especially for young monks and nuns. In life, the line between good and bad is difficult to demarcate, in the virtual world, that line is even more blurred. Useless information on the internet, both affects the practice process and wastes time. The virtual world is very convenient for us to spread the Buddha’s Dharma, but at the same time, it is also a useful weapon for evil individuals in society as well as for opposing
- Sallie B. King(2019) , Socially Engaged Buddhism, University of Hawai Press, 5: Engaged Buddhism is defined and unified by the intention to apply the values and teachings of Buddhism to the problems of society in a nonviolent way,motivated by concern for the welfare of others, and as an expression of one’s own practice of the Buddhist Way
- Thích Bảo Nghiêm(2020) A social network with challenges in the management and education of young monks and nuns and the current preaching work, Retrieved from 14/04/2023 from https://phatsuonline.com/ht-thich- bao-nghiem-phat-bieu-tham-luan-tai-hoi-nghi-tang-su-phat-giao-toan-quoc- nam-2020Social media quickly became a place between religions to attack each other. Even Buddhism, the Buddhist schools themselves, are trying to attack each other. Even monks who freely post sermons, their articles with incorrect content, or images of private life that are not suitable for the position and conduct of monastics also lose the faith of lay people.
II.2 Solution
Integration and development always exist in parallel on two sides of an issue, opportunities and challenges, positive and negative, luck always goes hand in hand with risks.
Firstly, young monks and nuns must diligently cultivate, diligently specializing in the Sūtras, precepts, and commentaries. In the present era, young monks and nuns must know how to be skillful in applying the Buddha’s teachings to daily life, in order to always feel happy and practice, to adapt to the monastic discipline, certain knowledge of Buddhism when they are still in the Buddhist schools, in order to be able to identify and transform suffering for oneself and those around them.
Secondly, young monks and nuns need to actively approach and promote the usefulness of smart gadgets, through social media, to convey the Buddha’s teachings to Buddhists, to help them instill in their thoughts, Buddhist philosophy of life, instead of sharing quotes about the art of living just to satisfy egos, ordinary happiness and joy. Young monks and nuns should take the time to share their practice experiences and answer questions related to Buddhism through online Dharma dialogue channels with the people.
Thirdly, the young generation of monks and nuns should be support for the community by doing charity, protecting the green environment, preventing epidemics (such as the great Covid-19 pandemic) is the responsibility and mission of the younger generation of monks towards the Dharma and the nation, to take advantage of their youth to commit themselves to serving. When participating in these community works, monks and nuns must always keep in mind and apply Catvari samgraha vastuni.
Last but not least, young monks and nuns must actively participate in summer retreats and basic Dharma classes for pupils and students because the human factor plays a significant role in developing and maintaining a strong Sangha. In the future, they will create a society in which people live in harmony with each other, hate war, love peace, and are truly peaceful and happy.
In short, with the motto of the bodhisattva’s fate in life, the role of Buddhist monks in using social networks as a skillful means requires anyone who uses social networks to look back at themselves. themselves to promptly orient in accessing this attractive social network. Buddhist monks in the new era need to pay attention to the following aspects:
- Seeing the advantages of spreading the Buddhadharma online, especially for young monks practicing or practicing Buddhist
- Each monk or Nun must be conscious and careful in what
they post in the network from content to form.
- As teachers and scholars, Monks must be more knowledgeable about this new technology. Therefore, “network monks”, skilled in the Internet environment, will help bring Buddhism into this century and beyond. Monks should use social networking sites to communicate with young followers and talk to them more, or they will gradually dismiss religion as outdated. Constantly aware technology is just a means of communication. Good or bad depends on the user. If used with wisdom, technology becomes a tool to enhance that monk’s potential for Dharma. Otherwise, that monk will harm himself.
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References
- Thích Trí Tịnh (trans), (2007), Lotus Sūtra, Tôn giáo, Hà Nội
- Thích Minh Châu (trans) (2005) Angutara Nikaya III, Tôn Giáo, Hà Nội
- Thích Thiên Hoa (2012), General Buddhism I, Tôn Giáo, Hà Nôi.
- Sallie King(2019) , Socially Engaged Buddhism, University of Hawai Press
- Gombrich, Richard F. (2006) How Buddhism Began, New York:
- Thomas Friedman (2005), Thế giới phẳng (The world is flat), Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
- Bai, Chunguang; Dallasega, Patrick; Orzes, Guido; Sarkis, Joseph, Industry 0 technologies assessment: A sustainability perspective, International Journal of Production Economics, 2020
- websiteS: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhisattva
- https://www.oxfordreference.com/upāya-kauśalya
- https://rigpawiki.org/index.php?title=Three_ wisdom_tools
- h t t p s : / / v b g h . v n / i n d e x . php?language=vi&nv=news&op=thich-minh-nhan/ truyen-thong-phat-giao-trong-ky-nguyen-cach-mang- cong-nghe-so-715.html
- https://giacngo.vn/tuthienxahoi/2008/06/19/76D41B
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THE ENGAGED SPIRIT OF THE BODHISATTVA IN VIETNAM BUDDHIST SANGHA IN THE CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY
Reseach scholar TN. An Tri- Dang Thi Hong Hue
Acharya Nagarjuna University
E-mail: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. Phone number: +91.9059729080
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Abstract
ith over 2.500 years of history, Buddhism in Vietnam
has quickly become a religious influence on the people’s lives in Vietnam. With the “engaged spirit of the Bodhisattva” philosophy, Buddhism in Vietnam has brought happiness to all sentient beings. The concept of “The engaged spirit of Vietnam Buddhist Sangha” refers not only to the activities of monks and nuns but also to the Buddhist laymen and women in social life as charity activities, disaster relief, helping the poorer in distress, etc. It contributes to solving environmental problems, educating young people, and so on based on serving the social life, helping to build a peaceful world where people can be happy and feel peace right in the real world as well.
Keywords: Vietnam Buddhist Sangha, The Engaged Spirit of the Bodhisattva, Vietnam Buddhist Sangha
Introduction
The Buddha’s teachings mention not only the path of liberation but also social issues and human beings that the spirit engaged in the Bodhisattva philosophy of Buddhism is an expression of the Bodhicitta of Buddhism to new practical demands. The concept of “The engaged spirit of Vietnam Buddhist Sangha” refers not only to the activities of monks but also Buddhists in social life, such as charity activities, disaster relief, helping the poorer in distress, etc. It also contributes to solving environmental problems, educating young people, etc., based on serving the social life and building a peaceful world where people can be happy and feel peace right in the real world. Moreover, the final result is enlightenment achieving Buddhahood. In the Buddha’s time, the concept of spirit engagement was already established by Buddha Gautama after there were 60 Arahants in the world: “Walk, monks, on tour for the blessing of the manifold, for the happiness of the manifold out of compassion for the world, for the welfare, the blessing, the happiness of devas and men. Monks teach dharma which is lovely at the beginning, lovely in the middle, and lovely at the ending,” 86and that is “The spirit engaged of the Bodhisattva.”
Although Theravada Buddhism proposes the policy of transcending the world to reach Arahant, Mahāyāna Buddhism aims at the spirit of the Bodhisattva to attain Buddhahood - opening the way of engaging the world for Buddhist followers, practicing the way of engaging the world, living in harmony with the secular life, becoming enlightened in life.
Buddhism was introduced to Vietnam in the 3rd century BC by sea from the South and the 1st century AD from the North. With over 2.500 years of history, Buddhism has quickly become a religious influence on people’s lives in Vietnam. In each historical
- Mahavagga IV, translated, I B Honer, Luzaca and Company LTD, London, 1971, p28.
period of Vietnam, Buddhism promoted its role of “protecting the country” – people’s safety. Buddhism had a significant influence on the fields of social life. With the “The spirit engaged of the Bodhisattva” philosophy, Vietnamese Buddhism has brought happiness to all sentient beings. Buddhism is a prominent religion, so in the process of introducing missionary integration with the culture of each country, Buddhism has not stopped engaging the world. “The engaged spirit of the Bodhisattva” comes from the method of meditation on loving-kindness, generating compassion, coming into life to help people; bring the Buddha’s teachings to life; In addition, “the spirit of the Bodhisattva” Buddhism is also concerned with political, cultural, ethical, lifestyle issues, etc., and applies good ideas of Buddhism to deal with social problems.
Characteristic Of The Spirit Engaged Of Vietnam Buddhist Sangha In History
Previously, at the time of the Buddha, the engaged spirit of entering the world had not been applied yet in social life. At that time, the monks who propagated the dharma mainly preached the pure dharma to those who desired liberating truth. Later, the spirit of engagement of the Vietnam Buddhist Sangha was applied in many different forms of society, so the “spirit of engagement” of Buddhism spread everywhere.
Nowadays, Buddhism is the main religion associated with the country’s history and the spiritual life of the Vietnamese people. Since its introduction to Vietnam, Buddhism has deeply influenced all aspects of social life. History has also proved that the engagement of Vietnamese Buddhism contributed to the prosperity of many feudal dynasties, the development of the country, and the census of the people. The spirit of “incarnation” of Buddhism has been demonstrated through prestigious monks, monks becoming soldiers, political advisors, and court advisors From the Dinh, Tien Le, Ly, and Tran dynasties, such as Zen master Ngo Chan Luu, Zen masters Phap Thuan, and Van Hanh as political advisors. Buddhism used to be the spiritual support, dominating society under the Ly - Tran dynasties or some Nguyen dynasties in the South.
Buddhism “ Engaged Spirit “ is the main idea of Buddhism in general, especially of Truc Lam Buddhism in the 13th – 14th centuries; With the spirit of compassion and wisdom - bringing the Buddha Dharma to life; With the thought “Harmony with mundane life” imbued with knowledge, national spirit, and preaching of the Dharma, bringing the light of enlightenment to the life of every human being in society has a positive influence on the living environment of people. This proves the positive philosophy of “Engaged Spirit” Buddhism. During the Tran, Dynasty made significant contributions to the nation-building, national defense, and successful development of Dai Viet.
The Engaged Spirit Engaged of Vietnam Buddhist Sangha Today
Vietnamese Buddhism is developing strongly according to the trend of “The engaged spirit of the Bodhisattva” Buddhist monks and nuns apply the teachings of the Buddha to social life to bring about social change,87 actively penetrating all areas of social life, promoting the integration process, meeting people’s spiritual needs, and contributing to making society more and more progressive and humane.
Vietnamese Buddhism has actively integrated into life, creating welfare for society, thereby expressing the spirit of active “The engaged spirit of the Bodhisattva.” The activities of Vietnamese Buddhism accompany the nation with the motto “Dharma - Nation and Socialism.” Throughout the nation’s history, Vietnamese Buddhism has been attached to and always attended the government during national construction and development; when the country carried out the renovation, the Vietnam Buddhist Sangha accompanied the people in the spirit of solidarity and harmony and was many practical activities for the benefit of the country and the people. In recent years, Vietnam has suffered from natural disasters such as floods and epidemics of COVID-19, which have
- Hanh, Thich Nhat (6 May 2008). “History of Engaged Buddhism”.
Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge. 6: 29–36.
resulted in the loss of life and property. Vietnamese Buddhism has contributed to the following practical activities:
III.1 Activities Dana
Dana is the most prominent form of “The engaged spirit of the Bodhisattva” in Buddhism through three kinds of Dana such as - The first kind of Dana is “the giving of material objects”; the second kind of Dana is “the giving of Dharma;” and the third kind of Dana is “the giving of fearlessness.” Ensuring social security has always been considered one of the critical tasks of the Vietnam Buddhist Sangha, clearly reflecting the social function of Buddhism, thereby spreading the message of compassion and wisdom, the “engaged spirit” of Buddhism into social life. Dana activities are replicated in pagodas, monasteries, and Buddhist communities at home and abroad, bringing many meanings to life and giving love to people. It is also an opportunity to propagate the Dharma to help them return to community life, actively doing rescue activities, ensuring social security, and creating cultural beauty and gratitude for Vietnam.
Floods in Central Vietnam in 2020
The flood phenomenon in 2020 raged forcefully in the central region of Vietnam and caused much harm to persons and property. This year’s storms are stronger and more destructive than in previous years, one of the hot phenomena that caught the attention of the entire public opinion and society at that time. Animals and crops were severely harmed and washed away by the flood, leaving little behind; many stored foods were also damaged. People who had lost all of their assets were forced to sit on the roofs of their homes, waiting for help. Even more tragic, many individuals have perished due to the storms and floods, including pregnant women giving birth and thirteen volunteers and soldiers on duty here.88
The visible repercussions of storms and floods badly disrupted people’s lives, causing significant harm to persons and property:
- https://thanhnien.vn/hang-ngan-loi-vinh-biet-cho-13-nguoi-hy-sinh-o- rao-trang-ngap-niem-tiec-thuong-1851003240.htm
houses were swept away, and people plunged into suffering “a dilemma” They cannot get out stuck in a flood zone. The home they had spent their entire lives building was destroyed. Floodwater has also severely harmed the biological environment; the country was in anguish and went to the Central area for help both materially and spiritually to help them overcome their hardships, showing the spirit of our people’s mutual affection.
Faced with this circumstance, the Vietnam Buddhist Sangha has appealed to monks, nuns, and Buddhist followers at home and abroad to work together to assist the people of the central area.89
Many monks and nuns have been unafraid of risk to their lives, overcoming the flood, and have come to help the hungry and support their relatives. With the compassion of the Buddha’s son, many monks and nuns in the provinces and cities have committed to overcoming hundreds of kilometers, overcoming the flood to reach the people in the central region, and giving gifts of food, clothes, and money to overcome difficulties.90.
Volunteer Monks And Nuns To Join The Frontline In The Fight Against COVID-19.
In early December 2019, a cluster of patients in a hospital in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China, was diagnosed with pneumonia of unclear etiology. One month later, the World Health Organization (WHO) designated COVID-19 a public health emergency of international significance. On March 11th, 2020, COVID-19 was declared a global pandemic.
Vietnam has not been spared the devastating effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Vietnam suffered from four waves of the COVID-19 pandemic. With the “No One Left Behind”, the Vietnamese people as a whole are unified in their commitment to combat the disease. Vietnamese Buddhists and Buddhist monks were among those who volunteered to help fight the disease.
- https://truyenhinhvov.vn/giao-hoi-phat-giao-vn-van-dong-cuu-tro- cac-tinh-lu-lut-mien-trung-164785946.htm.
- https://tapchivanhoaphatgiao.com/luu-tru/6015.
Volunteer monks and nuns were immunized against COVID-19 and trained to help with COVID-19 prevention and control at temporary COVID-19 treatment hospitals and concentrated isolation sites.
The Vietnam Buddhist Sangha in Ho Chi Minh City provided more than 30.000 meals per day for medical workers and people in quarantine centers and COVID-19 treatment hospitals under the chairman of Most Venerable Thich Tri Quang, Deputy Patriarch of the Vietnam Buddhist Sangha and Chairman of the Executive Council of the Ho Chi Minh City Buddhist Sangha.91 Many monks and nuns volunteer to care for COVID-19 patients in city field hospitals.92
In the spirit of compassion and wisdom, Buddhist charity organizations have actively participated in charity and social welfare activities. All these things further prove Vietnamese Buddhism’s “engaged spirit” philosophy in contemporary society.
III.2 Family and social life
Although economic conditions are improving due to more globalization and international integration, family difficulties in Vietnam are becoming more problematic, such as less strict family structure and increased conflicts in marriage and family, leading to an increase in divorce rates. Marriages fail for many reasons, including lifestyle difficulties, adultery, financial issues, domestic abuse, etc. That is why the Buddha taught about marriage and family life.
The Buddha’s teachings on instructions for raising a family and as a factor in establishing happiness in marriage and family; these rules still hold right in contemporary Vietnamese society. That is the entry of Buddhism into the world of family happiness, becoming a spiritual culture in the family and modern society.
- https://vietreader.com/news/47274-hcmc-buddhist-sangha-proposes-using- pagodas-as-covid-19-treatment-hospitals.html.
- https://english.thesaigontimes.vn/hcmc-buddhist-sangha-proposes- using-pagodas-as-covid-19-treatment-hospitals/.
The Buddha’s teachings on guidelines for raising a family and as a factor in establishing happiness in marriage and family are still applicable in modern Vietnamese society. That is the application of Buddhism’s entry into the world of family happiness, as it becomes a spiritual culture in the family and modern society.
In the face of new human, societal, and modern-day concerns, Buddhism has pushed its humanistic, compassionate, and charitable aspects in novel ways. With issues like climate change, environmental degradation, epidemics, terrorism, the expanding divide between wealthy and poor, ethnic and religious disputes, food security, and so on, people believe that their very life in jeopardy. To best tackle contemporary social problems, to best enter the world without dissolving into the secular world, without letting the world pull, and to harmonize with the world, a new strategy and perspective that promotes the natural light of Buddhism should be developed. It is vital to join the world through digitalization, technology, the Internet, and modern media so Buddhists can receive the Buddha Dharma and ancestral dharma as quickly and conveniently as possible.
The Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam has become increasingly involved in social life over the years, as it has coordinated with the National Traffic Safety Committee to hold a funeral ceremony for victims of road accidents; to educate people about the need to obey traffic rules, the Monks and Nuns participate in organizations and legislative bodies to supervise and provide ideas to establish methods, guidelines, and policies to satisfy the aspirations of voters; and participating in the Buddhism always encourages the public to practice compassion and mindfulness to live a calm, joyful, and tranquil existence.
Conclusions
Finally, given the length of the introduction and development history of Vietnamese Buddhism, contemporary Vietnamese Buddhism plays an increasingly important role in the cultural and spiritual lives of the masses. The Vietnamese “spiritual engage” philosophy of Buddhism has played a role as a policy and guiding principle throughout the nation’s history and contemporary Vietnamese society. In secular society, Buddhism engages, participates in social life, integrates, and solves social problems. The “spiritual engage” of Buddhism, like the present global religious movement, is still fostered in modern culture. Today, the spirit engaged in the Vietnam Buddhist Sangha tradition has entered more concrete and practical human life with positive values such as charity and humanitarian activities; health and education; family and society; ecological environment; and climate change response.
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References
- Honer, I.B. (1971). Mahavagga IV translated. Luzaca and Company LTD, London.
- Hanh, N. (2008, May 6). “History of Engaged Buddhism”. Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self- Knowledge.
- Son, K. (2018). Buddhism’s entering the world and contemporary social issues. National University Publisher.
- Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam. (2016). Summary Report on Buddhist work of the Vietnam Buddhist
- Central Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam. (2007-2012). Summary Report on Buddhist Work of the Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam, term
- Central Buddhist Sangha of Vietnam. (2017). Summary Report on Buddhist work - 35 years of establishment of the Buddhist Sangha of
Websites:
- com.vn. (2021). Buddhist volunteers join frontliners in COVID-19 fight. Retrieved from http://www. baodongnai.com.vn/english/society/202108/buddhist- volunteers-join-frontliners-in-covid-19-fight-3075494/
- vn. (2020). TP. HCM: Ban Từ thiện - Xã hội Trung ương tổng kết công tác Phật sự năm 2020. Retrieved from https://ghpgvn.vn/tp-hcm-ban-tu-thien-xa-hoi-trung-uong- tong-ket-cong-tac-phat-su-nam-2020/
- com. (n.d.). Lưu trữ. Retrieved
from https://tapchivanhoaphatgiao.com/luu-tru/6015
- The Saigon (n.d.). HCMC Buddhist Sangha proposes using pagodas as COVID-19 treatment hospitals. Retrieved from https://english.thesaigontimes.vn/hcmc- buddhist-sangha-proposes-using-pagodas-as-covid-19- treatment-hospitals/
- vn. (n.d.). Giao hội Phật giáo VN vận động cứu trợ các tỉnh lũ lụt miền Trung. Retrieved from https:// truyenhinhvov.vn/giao-hoi-phat-giao-vn-van-dong-cuu- tro-cac-tinh-lu-lut-mien-trung-164785946.htm
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CHAPTER II
GEOGRAPHICAL MAPS OF MAHAYANA BUDDHISM
IN INDIA
GEOGR_AP_HY M_APS OF MAHAYANA SUTRAS
IN INDIA
Do Hoang Nguyen (Ven. Thich Huyen Nhu), Ph.D. Scholar Dang Duy Lap (Rev. Thich Thien Tam), MA (Previous) Department of Buddhist Studies, Delhi University
Add: Thien Minh Buddhist Temple, Hue City, Vietnam E-mail: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. ; This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
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Abstract
his research paper aims to investigate the importance
of Mahāyāna sūtras within the advancement of Buddhism in India and its spread throughout Asia, emphasizing their geographical relevance. These sūtras are a collection of Buddhist scriptures that were initially written in India between the 1st and 5th centuries CE, and they played a crucial role in shaping the Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition, which prioritizes the attainment of Buddhahood for the greater good of all sentient beings and espouses doctrines like emptiness, compassion, Bodhisattva, and skillful means. The paper delves into the historical and philosophical contexts of the Mahāyāna sūtras, their impact on Buddhist practices and ideologies, and their role in propagating Buddhism. It moreover
considers the utilization of Geography Maps of Mahāyāna sūtras in India and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in understanding the spatial distribution of Mahāyāna Buddhist sites and the pilgrimage routes that connected them. Drawing on a range of primary and secondary sources, including the works of prominent scholars in the field, this paper validates the significant influence of Mahāyāna sūtras on the development of Buddhist thought and practice, as well as their importance for understanding the geography of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Furthermore, analyzing the geographical distribution of these sūtras can shed light on the cultural and religious influences in various regions of India when Mahāyāna Buddhism was flourishing.
Keywords: Mahāyāna sūtras, Geography of Mahāyāna Buddhism , Geographical Map of India, Geographic Information System (GIS)
General Introduction
The Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition originated in India and has a rich and complex history that spans several centuries and multiple regions of Asia such as Vietnam, China, Tibet, Korea, Japan, etc. Mahāyāna sūtras were translated into various languages and circulated among the Buddhist communities in these countries, and they formed the basis of Mahāyāna Buddhist teachings and practices.
One of the critical sources of information about this tradition is the corpus of Mahāyāna sūtras, which are religious texts that contain the teachings of the Buddha and his followers. While these sūtras are primarily concerned with spiritual matters, they also have rich information about the historical and cultural context in which they were composed.
They contain lessons on themes such as emptiness, compassion, wisdom, Bodhisattva, and the nature of reality, etc., and have significantly affected Buddhist logic and practices.
The geographical dissemination of Mahāyāna sūtras in India is an area incredibly intriguing for researchers, scholars, and experts of Buddhist Studies alike. They were examining the locations of these writings and their associated devout centers, ready to pick up a more profound understanding of the authentic improvement and spread of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India. Furthermore, this research paper can shed light on the social and social settings in which these writings were delivered and transmitted.
One strategy that has been demonstrated valuable for examining the geographic dispersion of Mahāyāna sūtras in India is Geographic Information Systems (GIS). By utilizing GIS computer programs and spatial information, analysts can visualize and analyze the geographic distribution of these writings and their related destinations, such as monasteries and pilgrimage sites. This permits a more nuanced understanding of the relationship between Mahāyāna Buddhism and the physical landscape of India.
Besides, looking at the geographic distribution of Mahāyāna sūtras in India can give essential experiences into how Buddhist communities were created and associated with each other in antiquated India. By analyzing the dispersion of these writings, analysts can better understand the associations between diverse regions and schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism and how these communities advanced over time.
In this research article, we will investigate the geographic conveyance of Mahāyāna sūtras in India utilizing GIS and other explanatory strategies. Through this examination, we trust to pick up a more profound understanding of the authentic, social, and social settings in which these writings were created and transmitted and the rich and complex history of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India.
Mahāyāna Buddhism began in India in the first century BCE and afterwards spread throughout East and Southeast Asia (Williams, 2009, p. 5). This Buddhist sect is known for its accentuation on the Bodhisattva way, which centers on achieving enlightenment not as it were for oneself but for the good thing about all aware creatures (Gethin, 1998, p. 83). Mahāyāna sūtras, the holy writings of this tradition, contain the teachings of the Buddha and his disciples and
guide practitioners seeking enlightenment.
Whereas the substance of Mahāyāna sūtras is broadly considered and acknowledged, the geographic distribution of these writings in India has gotten minor consideration in scholarly research. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can assist in filling this hole by visualizing and analyzing the dispersion of Mahāyāna sūtras in India. By mapping the areas of religious communities and journey regions related to Mahāyāna Buddhism, GIS can understand the spread and impact of this Buddhist tradition inside India.
This investigation is critical since it sheds light on the authentic and social setting in which Mahāyāna Buddhism was created and thrived. By understanding the geographic conveyance of Mahāyāna sūtras in India, we can gather a more profound appreciation for this convention’s differing qualities and complexity and its effect on Indian society. Moreover, this inquiry can gain a deeper understanding of the genuine progress and diffusion of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India.
The Significance of Mahāyāna Sūtras
Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India in the first century CE and played a vital part in the advancement of Buddhism in India and the spread of Buddhism throughout Asia (Buswell Jr. & Lopez Jr., 2014, p. 559).
This map displays the spread of Buddhism from the 1st century to 600 CE in southern Asia and the Pacific Islands. Sites of temples and holy places are marked throughout these regions.
Source: Oxford Atlas of World History, Oxford University Press, 1999. General Editor Patrick K. O’Brien. (p. 44). Retrieved from: https://commons.princeton.edu/mg/the-spread-of-buddhism-to- ad-600/
At the heart of the Mahāyāna tradition is the Mahāyāna sūtras, which are considered to be the words of the Buddha himself. This paper examines the verifiable setting, essential teachings, and importance of Mahāyāna sūtras in Buddhist reasoning and geographical distribution.
The verifiable setting of Mahāyāna sūtras is significant to understanding their importance. The rise of Mahāyāna sūtras in India was a reaction to the time’s changing social and cultural landscape. Mahāyāna sūtras were composed in India and were instrumental in the arrangement of the Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition (Buswell Jr. & Lopez Jr., 2014, p. 559). These writings played a vital part in the spread of Mahāyāna Buddhism all through Asia and proceed to be imperative nowadays.
Key teachings of Mahāyāna sūtras incorporate emptiness, compassion, Bodhisattva, skillful means, and the achievement of Buddhahood. Emptiness is the doctrine that all phenomena lack inherent existence and that everything is interdependent. Compassion refers to the idea that all beings are suffering and that one should strive to alleviate the suffering of others. Skillful means refers to the idea that there are many different paths to enlightenment and that different methods may be necessary for different individuals. Finally, the attainment of Buddhahood refers to the ultimate goal of the Mahāyāna path, which is to become a fully enlightened Buddha for the benefit of all beings (Buswell Jr. & Lopez Jr., 2014, pp. 559-560).
The significance of Mahāyāna sūtras in Buddhist philosophy is also essential to consider. Mahāyāna sūtras have significantly influenced Buddhist philosophy, and they remain important today. Mahāyāna sūtras emphasize the importance of compassion and the idea that all beings can attain Buddhahood. Mahāyāna sūtras underline the significance of kindness and the thought that all creatures can achieve Buddhahood (Conze, 1975, p. 40). Compared to Theravāda Buddhism, Mahāyāna Buddhism focuses more on widespread freedom and the significance of the Bodhisattva way (Buswell Jr. & Lopez Jr., 2014, p. 560).
One of the foremost noteworthy Mahāyāna sūtras is the Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra, which was composed in India during the first or second century CE (Ikeda, 2009, p. 53). The Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra instructs the extreme truth of the universe, which is that all living creatures have the Buddha nature, and can therefore accomplish enlightenment (Ikeda, 2009, p. 59). The sūtra also emphasises the bodhisattva way’s significance, which includes working for the good thing about all creatures and alleviating their suffering (Ikeda, 2009, p. 65).
Another vital Mahāyāna sūtra is the Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya sūtra, which could be a brief teaching of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtra (Lopez Jr., 1988, p. 27). The Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya sūtra educates the teaching of Śūnyatā (emptiness), which is the thought that all phenomena lack inherent existence (Lopez Jr., 1988, p. 32). This teaching is essential to the Mahāyāna Buddhist path, as it emphasizes the importance of realizing the ultimate nature of reality to attain liberation from suffering.
The Mahāyāna sūtras were too instrumental in improving the Buddhist tenet of Upaya (skillful means). Skillful means refers to adapting one’s teachings to the needs and capacities of one’s audience to guide them towards the ultimate goal of enlightenment (Conze, 1975, p. 96). The Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra, for example, teaches that the Buddha uses skillful means to lead beings to the truth by using various expedient means, or upaya, to suit their particular circumstances (Conze, 1975, p. 99).
Geographically, Mahāyāna sūtras have been critical in understanding the spread of Buddhism over India and beyond. Maps of Mahāyāna sūtras in India give an understanding of the social and devout impacts that formed the Mahāyāna tradition. These maps, moreover, show vital data about the spread of Buddhism all through Asia and almost the distinctive social and devout settings in which Buddhism was created (Harvey, 2013, p. 120).
In conclusion, Mahāyāna sūtras have played a critical part in Buddhism’s development in India and the spread of Buddhism throughout Asia (Buswell Jr. & Lopez Jr., 2014, p. 559). The verifiable setting, fundamental doctrines, and noteworthiness of Mahāyāna sūtras in Buddhist reasoning and geography distribution are imperative in understanding their significance. As the Buddhist tradition proceeds to advance, the importance of Mahāyāna sūtras will likely continue to be a subject of intrigue for researchers and Buddhist studies scholars.
Geographic distribution of Mahāyāna sūtras
Mahāyāna sūtras were transmitted and preached over diverse regions of India, driving a geographic distribution of these writings. According to scholar Jan Nattier, the Mahāyāna sūtras “were composed in India and subsequently transmitted to other regions, such as China and Tibet, where they were translated into the local languages and produced new religious cultures” (Nattier, 2003, p. 2). This transmission and translation of the Mahāyāna Sūtras were facilitated by the Indian trading network, which connected different regions of the country (Schopen, 1987, p. 89)). Moreover, the Buddhist monastic network played a crucial role in disseminating these texts, as monks traveled to different parts of India to spread Buddha’s teachings (Bronkhorst, 2013, p. 28). As a result, the Mahāyāna sūtras were not restricted to a specific locale or community but were grasped by Buddhists over India and beyond.
The geographic dissemination of Mahāyāna sūtras in India reflects the wide spread of these writings in various areas. This transmission and interpretation of Mahāyāna sūtras brought about their spread over the Indian subcontinent, from the northwest to the southeast, and from the Himalayas to the Deccan Plateau.
One of the earliest centers of Mahāyāna Buddhism was in the northwest region of India, especially in Gandhāra, which is presently modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan. This locality was a pivotal center for the transmission and dispersal of Buddhism to Central Asia, China, and beyond. Gandhāra was known for its unique artistic style that blended Indian and Hellenistic influences, and its Buddhist monasteries were eminent centers of learning and scholarship.
The Mahāyāna sūtras were translated and transmitted from Gandhāra, including the Prajñāpāramitā, the Avataṃsaka and the Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra (Lopez, 1995, p. 10).
Source: https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3943/map-of- gandhara/
Another vital center of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India was the eastern region of Magadha, which included modern-day Bihar and parts of Uttar Pradesh. Magadha was the site of several renowned Buddhist universities, such as Nalanda and Vikramashila, which attracted scholars and students from all over India and beyond. The Mahāyāna sūtras that were interpreted and transmitted from Magadha incorporate the Saddharma Puṇḍarīka, the Vimalakīrtinirdeṣa, and the Laṅkāvatārasūtra (Conze, 1973, p. 7).
Within the southern region of India, the Mahāyāna sūtras were transmitted and interpreted in centers such as Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh, known for its rich Buddhist heritage and monastic institutions. The Mahāyāna sūtras that were translated and transmitted from Nagarjunakonda consist of the Ratnagotravibhāga and the Mahāyānasaṃgraha (Wayman, 1993, p. 7).
The geographic dissemination of Mahāyāna sūtras reflects the diverse cultural and linguistic contexts in which they were translated and transmitted. For instance, the Mahāyāna sūtras that were interpreted in Gandhāra were rendered into Kharoṣṭhī, the local script of the region, while those diagnosed in Magadha, were rendered into Sanskrit, the language of the intellectual elite of India at that time. In southern India, the Mahāyāna sūtras were interpreted into Dravidian dialects such as Tamil and Telugu (Bronkhorst, 2007, p. 18).
The geographic dissemination of Mahāyāna sūtras in India reflects the different historical and political contexts in which they were translated and transmitted. For instance, the interpretation of Mahāyāna sūtras in Gandhāra was closely tied to the rise of the Kushan Empire, which fostered a cosmopolitan environment and supported the arts and culture. In contrast, the translation of Mahāyāna Sūtras in Magadha was closely linked to the patronage of Buddhist kings and emperors, such as Ashoka and Harsha, who supported the spread of Buddhism and the construction of monastic institutions (Harvey, 2013, p. 63).
The geographic distribution of Mahāyāna sūtras in India reflects the diverse cultural, linguistic, historical, and political contexts in which these texts were translated and transmitted. The dissemination of Mahāyāna sūtras across different regions of India reflects the dynamism and adaptability of Buddhism and its ability to engage with and assimilate diverse cultural and intellectual traditions.
Figure 1
Map of the major divisions of Sectarian Buddhism in India. Sarvastivada (Red), Sthaviravada (Orange), Mahasamghika (Yellow), Pudgalavada (Green), Dharmaguptaka (Gray).
Retrieved from: https://encyclopediaofbuddhism.org/wiki/ File:SectarianBuddhistschools.png
Geographic Information Systems
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are progressively being utilized in mapping and analyzing spatial information related to religious sites and practices, including Buddhism. In India, Mahāyāna Buddhism, one of the major Buddhist traditions, has left a significant geographical footprint in the form of Buddhist monuments and pilgrimage sites. GIS has proved to be an effective tool in mapping and analyzing these sites’ spatial distribution and characteristics.
The spatial dissemination of Mahāyāna Buddhist sites in India is a significant area of considerable research and investigation within Buddhist studies. GIS has been utilized in mapping and analyzing these sites’ spatial dissemination and characteristics (Sakai, 2014,
- 91). GIS permits the integration of multiple layers of spatial data, including demographic, environmental, and cultural data, which can provide a comprehensive understanding of the spatial patterns and characteristics of Mahāyāna Buddhist sites in India
(Yoshida, 2019, p. 72).
One of the challenges in using GIS in mapping religious sites is the limited availability and accuracy of spatial data. In the case of Mahāyāna Buddhist sites in India, historical and cultural factors have resulted in the loss or degradation of many sites (Shaw, 2016,
- 233). Be that as it may, GIS can still be valuable in recognizing and mapping the remaining regions and analyzing their spatial characteristics.
To conclude, GIS has become a binding instrument in mapping and analyzing the spatial conveyance and characteristics of Mahāyāna Buddhist destinations in India. Whereas there are challenges in utilizing GIS in mapping religious sites, the integration of different layers of spatial information can give a comprehensive understanding of the spatial designs and characteristics of these sites. Future research could focus on utilizing GIS in mapping the spatial distribution of other Buddhist traditions in India and other parts of Asia.
Conclusion
In summary, the research of geography maps of Mahāyāna sūtras in India gives profitable experiences into this important Buddhist tradition’s historical and cultural context. The Mahāyāna
sūtras played a pivotal part in advancing Buddhism in India and spreading throughout Asia. These texts were instrumental within the structure of the Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition, which emphasizes the attainment of Buddhahood for the benefit of all beings. By utilizing GIS innovation to analyze the geographical distribution and movement of Mahāyāna sūtras in India, researchers can better understand the social and political factors that shaped the development and dissemination of Buddhist teachings in ancient India.
Furthermore, GIS technology can help to identify new areas of research and exploration, such as the relationship between the distribution of Mahāyāna sūtras and the development of Buddhist art and architecture in India. As the field of GIS continues to evolve and expand, scholars can expect to uncover new insights and perspectives on the rich history and culture of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India and beyond.
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References
- Bronkhorst, (2007). Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India. BRILL.
- Bronkhorst, (2013). Buddhist Teaching in India. Wisdom Publications.
- Conze, (1958). Buddhism: Its Essence and Development. Harper & Row Publishers.
- Conze, (1959). Buddhist texts through the ages. Harper & Row.
- Conze, (1973). The Large Sūtra on Perfect Wisdom. University of California Press.
- Conze, (1975). The Lotus Sūtra. Penguin Classics.
- Conze, (1993). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines & Its Verse Summary. Grey Fox Press.
- Conze, (2013). Buddhist wisdom: The diamond Sūtra
and the heart Sūtra. Vintage Books.
- Gethin, R. (1998). The foundations of Buddhism. Oxford University
- Gombrich, F. (1997). How Buddhism began: The conditioned genesis of the early teachings. Routledge.
- Harvey, (2013). An introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, history and practices. Cambridge University Press.
- Ikeda, D. (2009). Unlocking the Mysteries of Birth and Death: Buddhism in the Contemporary World. Middleway
- Keown, D. (2013). Buddhism: A very short introduction. Oxford University
- Lopez , D. S. (1988). Buddhist Hermeneutics. University of Hawaii Press.
- Lopez Jr., D. S. (2013). The Lotus Sūtra: A biography. Princeton University
- Lopez , D. S., & Buswell Jr., R. E. (2014). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press.
- Nattier, J. (2008). A few good men: The Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra (Ugraparipṛcchā). University of Hawaii
- Sakai, M. (2014). Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Buddhism. In S. Hirota, M. Sakai, & T. Takemura (Eds.), GIS in hospital and healthcare emergency management (pp. 89-95).
- Schopen, G. (1997). Bones, stones, and Buddhist monks: Collected papers on the archaeology, epigraphy, and texts of monastic Buddhism in India. University of Hawaii
- Shaw, J. (2016). Buddhist landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and archaeologies of religious and social change, third century BC to fifth century AD. Routledge.
- Wayman, (1993). The Buddhist Tantras: Light on Indo-Tibetan Esotericism. Routledge.
- Williams, P. (2008). Mahāyāna Buddhism: The doctrinal foundations (2nd ed.). Routledge.
- Yoshida, N. (2019). Mapping Buddhist pilgrimage sites: Spatial data analysis of Gaya, India using GIS. Journal of Asian Humanities at Kyushu University, 4, 59-78.
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CHAPTER III
GANDHARA BUDDHISM
Research Scholar
Thich Nu Phap Hue – Huynh Thanh Loan
Department of Anthropology, Andhra University
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. Mobile: 7368045859.
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Abstract
his paper delves into the history, art, architecture, and literature of Gandhara Buddhism, a distinct style
of Buddhism that originated during the first century CE. The interaction of Hellenistic, Indian, and indigenous influences resulted in Gandhara’s particular aesthetic and architectural style; moreover, Gandhara Buddhist writings have increased our understanding of early Buddhist teachings, challenged beliefs regarding Mahāyāna Buddhism’s roots, and offered insight into the variety within Buddhism. The preservation and investigation of historical texts have been critical in understanding the history and development of religious traditions. The recent discovery of Gandharan literature has offered vital insights into the beginnings of Buddhism and questioned common knowledge about its history. The significance of maintaining these historical materials is emphasized, as is the necessity for continued conservation efforts to protect them for future generations.
Keywords: Gandhara Buddhism, the interaction of Hellenistic,
Indian, Roots of Mahāyāna Buddhism.
Introduction
Gandhara Buddhism, an ancient Buddhist tradition that developed in the region of Gandhara, which spanned present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, has been the subject of much scholarly attention. Emerging during the first century BCE and lasting until the fifth century CE, Gandhara Buddhism was characterized by a fusion of Indian and Hellenistic cultures that resulted in a distinctive artistic and cultural style.
The origins of Gandhara Buddhism can trace back to the reign of Emperor Ashoka in the third century BCE, who promoted the spread of Buddhism throughout his empire and beyond. The region of Gandhara, with its diverse cultural and religious influences, played a significant role in developing a unique form of Buddhism. The interaction of Indian and Hellenistic cultures resulted in a fusion of artistic and cultural forces that is evident in the art and architecture of Gandhara Buddhism.
The historical role of Gandhara Buddhism was necessary, as the region was a center of Buddhist learning, and many renowned Buddhist scholars and philosophers lived and taught there. The Gandharan school of art, which flourished during this period, produced some of the most iconic and influential images of the Buddha and Buddhist deities, characterized by their realistic and naturalistic style.
The unique art of Gandharan Buddhism has been a defining characteristic of the tradition. Characterized by a fusion of Indian and Hellenistic artistic influences, the art is known for its realistic and naturalistic style. Gandharan Buddhist art includes images of the Buddha, bodhisattvas, and other Buddhist deities, as well as scenes from the life of the Buddha and various Buddhist legends.
In addition to its unique artistic style, Gandhara Buddhism was also known for its literary contributions. The Gandhāran Buddhist texts include a variety of Sūtras and other religious texts that played a significant role in the development of the tradition. These texts wrote in Gandhari, a language closely related to Sanskrit, and preserved in manuscript form.
The Gandhara school of Buddhism was also supported by the Kushan empire (30–375 CE), which funded the construction of monasteries and stupas. The first and second centuries CE established a sizable number of Buddhist centres in Gandhara. A typical Buddhist centre would have monasteries next to a stupa housing relics of the Buddha, which served as the focal point for lay and monastic worship and offerings in the form of sculptures. Under Kanishka, the Great Buddhist stupas and monasteries were built in the Gandhāran city of Peshawar, the capital of the Kushan empire. At this time, Buddhist buildings were adorned with sculptures and narrative reliefs that focused on the life of Gautama Buddha. Along the Silk Road, Buddhism continued to spread to Bactria, Central Asia, and China thanks to Kushan support and the construction of safe trade routes from Gandhara to Asia. The quantity of Maitreya pictures discovered in Gandhra is evidence that the cult of the Bodhisattva Maitreya was influential during the Kushan kingdom.
II. Historical Background of Gandhara Buddhism
The origin of Gandhara Buddhism can be traced back to the spread of Buddhism in the region of Gandhara during the reign of Emperor Ashoka (268-232 BCE) in the Mauryan Empire in India. Emperor Ashoka, also known as Ashoka the Great, was a prominent patron of Buddhism and played a pivotal role in its propagation beyond India’s borders, including in the Gandhara region.93
Ashoka’s inscriptions, known as Ashoka’s Edicts, are found in various parts of his empire, including in Gandhara. Ashoka made edicts, some using the Gāndhārī language and the Kharosthi script that later Gandhāran Buddhists used.94
- Wikimedia (2023, April 20). Gandhara. Wikipedia. Retrieved April 21, 2023, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandhara.
- Salomon, (1998). Indian epigraphy: A guide to the study of inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan languages (south asia research). Oxford University Press, p. 204-206.
These decrees attest to Buddhism’s presence in Gandhara. As far west as Wardak along the Kabul River, in Tajikistan (Anzhina- Tepe), Uzbekistan (Termez), and as far south as Mohenjo-Daro and Baluchistan, Kharosthi inscriptions have been discovered.
With its strategic location along the Silk Road trade route, Gandhara became an important center for exchanging ideas, culture, and art. The region’s unique cultural and historical context, including its contact with Greek and Indian cultures, influenced the development of Gandhara Buddhism. This is evident in the distinctive Gandharan Buddhist art, which combined Indian and Greek artistic styles, as well as the syncretic nature of Gandhara Buddhism, which incorporated local traditions into its belief system. 95
The Gandhara school of Buddhism was also supported by the Kushan empire (30–375 CE), which funded the construction of monasteries and stupas. The first and second centuries CE established a sizable number of Buddhist centres in Gandhara. A typical Buddhist centre would have monasteries close by a stupa with Buddha relics, which served as the focal point for lay and monk worship and offerings in the form of sculptures. During Kanishka, the Great Buddhist stupas and monasteries were constructed at Peshawar, the Kushan empire’s central city. At this time, Buddhist buildings were adorned with sculptures and narrative reliefs that focused on the life of Gautama Buddha. Along the Silk Road, Buddhism continued to spread to Bactria, Central Asia, and China thanks to Kushan support and the construction of safe trade routes from Gandhara to Asia. The cult of the Bodhisattva Maitreya was influential during the Kushan empire, as shown by the abundance of Maitreya images found in Gandhāra.96
III. Art and Architecture of Gandhara Buddhism
The unique art of Gandharan Buddhism
- Brancaccio, P., & Behrendt, K. (Eds.). (2014). Gandharan Buddhism: Archaeology, art, and texts. UBC Press, 12
- p.17
Gandharan Buddhist art is known for its unique features, including Greek-inspired realism, distinctive iconography, architectural influences, local artistic adaptation, narrative depictions, and the use of materials such as grey-blue schist.97 These features reflect the artistic synthesis and cultural exchange in the Gandhara region during ancient times, making Gandharan art and architecture a significant and distinct tradition within the broader context of Buddhist art.
One of the most remarkable aspects of Gandharan Buddhist art is its realistic portrayal of human anatomy, influenced by Hellenistic Greek art. 98 The sculptures often exhibit lifelike renditions of facial features, muscular bodies, and flowing drapery, reminiscent of classical Greek sculptures. This realistic approach to depicting the human form is a hallmark of Gandharan art and distinguishes it from other Buddhist art styles.
Gandharan Buddhist art also incorporates distinctive iconographic elements that hold symbolic meaning in Buddhism. The sculptures often depict Buddha, Bodhisattvas, and other Buddhist deities with specific attributes and symbols. For example, Buddha is typically shown with elongated earlobes, a cranial bump (ushnisha) representing his enlightenment, and various hand gestures (mudras) that convey specific meanings. Bodhisattvas are often depicted with attributes such as lotus flowers, celestial garments, and jewellery, which symbolize their divine qualities and virtues.
Narrative depictions of Buddhist stories and scenes from the life of the Buddha are another common theme in Gandharan art. These narrative panels often portray multiple episodes from the Buddha’s
- Encyclopaedia Britannica, (2020, April 6). Gandhara art. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 22, 2023, from https://www. britannica.com/art/Gandhara-art
- Marshall, J. H. (1960). The Buddhist art of gandhāra: The story of the early school; its birth, growth and decline. The Cambridge University Press, 26
life in a single composition, with intricate details and symbolism. These depictions provide insights into the early Buddhist narratives and the spread of Buddhism in the Gandhara region, making them significant from artistic and historical perspectives.
Gandharan Buddhist architecture uniquely blends architectural elements from different cultural traditions. The Gandharan stupas, domed structures enshrining Buddhist relics, often feature Greek- inspired elements such as Corinthian columns, friezes with Greek- style motifs, and Indian and Central Asian architectural elements. This fusion of architectural influences creates a distinct style of Buddhist architecture in the Gandhara region.
While Gandharan art incorporates Greek and Central Asian influences, it also exhibits a distinct regional style, reflecting local artistic adaptation. For instance, the facial features of Gandharan sculptures often show a local artistic sensibility, with full cheeks, high eyebrows, and heavy-lidded eyes that are different from classical Greek or Indian styles. This local adaptation adds a unique touch to Gandharan art and reflects the artistic synthesis in the Gandhara region.
In addition to its unique style, Gandharan Buddhist art is also notable for its use of materials. The sculptures were typically made from grey-blue schist, a soft and easily workable stone abundant in the region. This stone was favored for its ability to be carved in intricate detail, allowing artists to create highly realistic and expressive figures.
Symbolism and Themes of Gandhara Buddhist Art
One of the prominent symbols in Gandharan Buddhist art is the depiction of the Buddha with elongated earlobes, a cranial bump (ushnisha) representing his enlightenment, and a peaceful expression on his face. Due to the influence of Greek art, the Buddha’s robes have folds, and floats and are as vivid as real clothes; this is different from the art of statuary in Mathura, with clothes that are tight to the body and do not show any degree
of improvement nature of the dress. 99 The serene and dignified depiction of the Buddha in Gandharan art conveys the sense of tranquillity, wisdom, and compassion associated with the awakened state.
Mudras, or hand gestures, are another significant element in Gandharan Buddhist art that conveys specific meanings. Mudras are often depicted in the hands of the Buddha and other figures, representing various aspects of the Buddha’s teachings and virtues. For example, the “Bhumisparsha mudra” is a common mudra where the Buddha is shown touching the earth with his right hand, symbolizing his calling to the ground to witness his enlightenment. This mudra represents the moment when the Buddha defeated Mara, the embodiment of ignorance and temptation, and attained enlightenment. Other mudras, such as the “Dhyana mudra” (meditation gesture) and “Abhaya mudra” (fearlessness gesture), are also commonly depicted in Gandharan art, representing the Buddha’s deep meditation and fearlessness in the face of obstacles on the path to enlightenment.
Bodhisattvas, revered beings who have attained enlightenment but choose to remain in the world to help others achieve liberation, are another prominent theme in Gandharan Buddhist art. Bodhisattvas are often depicted with elaborate jewellery, celestial garments, and lotus flowers, symbolizing their divine attributes and virtues. They are shown as compassionate and compassionate figures, exemplifying the ideal of altruism and compassion in Mahāyāna Buddhism. The depiction of Bodhisattvas in Gandharan art inspires devotees to aspire to their qualities of compassion, selflessness, and enlightenment.
Jataka tales, stories of the previous lives of the Buddha that highlight his moral virtues and spiritual qualities, are another essential theme depicted in Gandharan art. Scenes from these
- Phong, (2011, October 24). Nghệ Thuật Biểu Thi nhân Dạng đức Phật. THƯ VIỆN HOA SEN. Retrieved April 23, 2023, from https:// thuvienhoasen.org/a13380/nghe-thuat-bieu-thi-nhan-dang-duc-phat
Jataka tales are often illustrated in intricate relief panels, portraying the Buddha in his previous lives as a prince, an animal, or a deity, demonstrating moral lessons and the path to enlightenment. These narrative depictions provide insights into the early Buddhist narratives and teachings and serve as a source of inspiration for devotees to emulate the virtues and qualities of the Buddha in their own lives.
Devotional scenes are also commonly depicted in Gandharan Buddhist art, portraying scenes of devotion and reverence by devotees towards the Buddha and other revered figures. These scenes often depict devotees offering flowers, incense, and other offerings to the Buddha, showing their reverence and devotion towards the enlightened one. These depictions convey the importance of devotion and reverence in Buddhism, emphasizing the relationship between the devotee and the enlightened beings.
The theme of impermanence and the transient nature of life is also portrayed in Gandharan Buddhist art. Depictions of ageing, sickness, and death are often depicted as decayed corpses, skeletal remains, or emaciated figures, reminding the viewers of the impermanence of life and the inevitability of death. These depictions serve as a reminder of the Buddhist concept of impermanence (anicca) and the importance of cultivating detachment and mindfulness towards the transient nature of existence.
IV. Gandhāran Buddhist texts
The Gandhāran Buddhist texts are the oldest known Buddhist manuscripts discovered so far, dating from the 1st century BCE to the 3rd century CE. They represent the literature of Gandharan Buddhism from present-day northwestern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan, written in Gāndhārī language using the Kharoṣṭhī script.100
Gandhari Buddhist texts are found in various collections,
- Brancaccio, , & Behrendt, K. (Eds.). (2014). Gandharan Buddhism: Archaeology, art, and texts. UBC Press, p.26
including The British Library Collection, The Senior Collection, The Schøyen Collection, University of Washington, the Library of Congress, The “Split” Collection, and The Bajaur Collection. The Senior Collection, bought by British collector Robert Senior, consists of canonical Sūtras written on birch bark and stored in clay jars. The Schøyen Collection contains birch bark, palm leaf, and vellum manuscripts believed to have been found in the Bamiyan caves of Afghanistan. They date from the second to the 8th century CE and include texts in Gandhari, Sanskrit, and other languages. The University of Washington acquired a manuscript from a collector in 2002, which is an early commentary on the Buddha’s teachings on human suffering. The Library of Congress purchased a scroll in 2003 called the “Bahubuddha Sūtra” or “The Many Buddhas Sūtra”, similar to the Mahāvastu and containing educational content. The Khotan Dharmapada, a copy of the Dhammapada written in Gandhari Prakrit, was discovered near Khotan in China in 1892 and was published in parts of France and Russia. The “Split” Collection, whose local origins are unclear, includes manuscripts found in the Pakistan-Afghanistan border area, some of which are in private collections and some in Western collections. One manuscript from the “Split” Collection contains Avadana tales and is radiocarbon dated to the first century BCE. Another damaged manuscript in Kharoṣṭhī script from the “Split” Collection is a partial Mahāyāna text.
The discovery of Gandharan texts has significantly impacted our understanding of Buddhism. According to Richard Salomon, these texts include translations of fundamental Sūtras, known as agama Sūtras in Sanskrit and Nikaya collections in Pali, which are common to all Buddhist schools. These texts, such as the “Sūtra on The Fruits of Striving” (Samannaphala Sutta), “Sūtra of Chanting Together” (Sangiti Sutta) and “Sūtra of the Floating Log” (Darukkhandha Sutta), provide insights into early Buddhist teachings and practices. In addition, the Gandharan texts also include well-known Mahāyāna Sūtras, such as the “Perfection of Wisdom Sūtra” and the “Bodhisattva Basket Sūtra”, challenging previous assumptions about the origins of Mahāyāna Buddhism and the language in which these texts were composed initially.101 The discovery of previously unknown texts in Gandhara also
sheds light on the vast amount of Buddhist literature that may
have been lost over time. Gandhara’s unique climate and cultural practices, such as ritually interring manuscripts in clay pots, have contributed to the preservation of these texts. However, it is likely that similar manuscripts once existed in other regions of the Indian heartland.
The significance of the Gandharan texts goes beyond their historical and linguistic implications. These texts provide valuable insights into the beliefs, practices, and teachings of early Buddhist communities in Gandhara and the broader Indian subcontinent. They shed light on the evolution of Buddhist thought, the spread of Buddhism across different regions, and its diverse interpretations and practices during its formative years. The inclusion of Mahāyāna Sūtras in the Gandharan texts challenges the traditional narrative of Mahāyāna Buddhism as a later development that emerged in Sanskrit-speaking regions, pointing to the complexity and diversity of early Buddhist traditions.
Furthermore, the Gandharan texts highlight the importance of preserving and studying ancient manuscripts as crucial sources for understanding the history and development of religious traditions. The accidental preservation of these texts in Gandhara underscores the need for continued efforts in archaeological excavations, preservation, and translation of ancient manuscripts in other regions to uncover more insights into the rich and diverse history of Buddhism and other religious traditions.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the study of Gandhara Buddhism offers valuable insights into South Asia’s history, culture, and religious traditions. The interplay of Hellenistic, Indian, and local influences resulted in
- Salomon, (2021, July 16). How the gandharan manuscripts change Buddhist history. Lions Roar. Retrieved April 23, 2023, from https://www. lionsroar.com/how-the-gandharan-manuscripts-change-buddhist-history/
a unique form of Buddhism shaped by its surroundings and left an enduring legacy in the region. The discovery of Gandharan texts has deepened our understanding of Buddhism by providing valuable insights into early Buddhist teachings, challenging assumptions about the origins of Mahāyāna Buddhism, and shedding light on the diversity within Buddhism.
Moreover, preserving and studying ancient manuscripts are crucial for understanding the history and development of religious traditions. The manuscripts found in Gandhara reveal the importance of preservation practices and highlight the need for ongoing conservation efforts to safeguard these valuable historical sources for future generations.
The cultural and religious influences in Gandhara during the time of Gandhara Buddhism were instrumental in shaping its historical importance. The legacy of Gandhara Buddhism continues to be a testament to the rich cultural heritage and religious diversity of the Gandhara region, making it a significant chapter in the history of Buddhism and the cultural history of South Asia. As such, further research and exploration in other areas may uncover more treasures of ancient texts, enriching our knowledge of Buddhism and its multifaceted history.
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References
- Brancaccio, , & Behrendt, K. (Eds.). (2014). Gandharan Buddhism: Archaeology, art, and texts. UBC Press.
- Encyclopaedia Britannica, E. (2020, April 6). Gandhara art. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 22, 2023, from https://www.britannica.com/art/Gandhara-art
- Giáo hội Phật giáo Việt Nam. (2020, September 18). Ý Nghĩa Trọng đại Của Thủ Bản Kinh Phật Viết Trên vỏ cây bô-la ở Gandhara. Phật Giáo Việt Nam. Retrieved April 23, 2023, from https://phatgiao.org.vn/y-nghia- trong-dai-cua-thu-ban-kinh-phat-viet-tren-vo-cay-bo-la-o- gandhara-d43746.html
- Marshall, J. H. (1960). The Buddhist art of gandhāra: The story of the early school; its birth, growth and decline. The Cambridge University
- Phong, H. (2011, October 24). Nghệ Thuật Biểu Thi nhân Dạng đức Phật. THƯ VIỆN HOA SEN. Retrieved April 23, 2023, from https://thuvienhoasen.org/a13380/nghe- thuat-bieu-thi-nhan-dang-duc-phat
- Salomon, (1998). Indian epigraphy: A guide to the study of inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other indo- aryan languages (south asia research). Oxford University Press.
- Salomon, (2021, July 16). How the gandharan manuscripts change Buddhist history. Lions Roar. Retrieved April 23, 2023, from https://www.lionsroar.com/ how-the-gandharan-manuscripts-change-buddhist-history/
- Wikimedia (2023, April 20). Gandhara. Wikipedia. Retrieved April 21, 2023, from https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandhara
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ANCIENT GANDHARA: A LAND LINK TO THE RISE OF NORTH BUDDHISM
Research Scholar:
Thich Nguyen Dao - Luc Huynh Phu Quy
Acharya Nagajuna University Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. Phone number: 7842718172
|
Abstract
hen talking about North Buddhism, we often overlook
important details about the development or cradle of Mahāyāna Buddhism. This is important to help us to find the glory days of early Mahāyāna Buddhism with the commentators who made the name of north Buddhism as Vasumitra, Lokaksema, Kumāralāta, Vasubandhu, and Asanga before Buddhism declined in India. Buddhism in the Gandhara region experienced three glorious periods marking its role in spreading Buddhism to the surrounding areas with the name known as Northern Buddhism or Mahāyāna Buddhism. During the Asoka and Kanishka dynasties, Gandhara was not only considered a place of cross-religious cultures between Iran, Greek, and India, also here marking the development of art and Buddhism flourished but also the cradle of spreading Mahāyāna Buddhism to the region in Central, and East Asia, and other countries through the Silk Road as China, Nepal, Tibet, and other countries with Mahāyāna Sūtras and famous commentators.
Keywords: Ancient Gandhara, North Buddhism, King Asoka, King Kanishka, Silk Road
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Introduction
When talking about North Buddhism, we often overlook important details about the development or cradle of Mahāyāna Buddhism. This is important to find the glory days of early Mahāyāna Buddhism with the commentators who named north Buddhism such as Vasumitra, Lokaksema, Kumāralāta, Vasubandhu, and Asanga before Buddhism declined in India. When studying early North Buddhism, ancient northern India is now known as the land of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Gandhara has played an important role in promoting and spreading Buddhism to the adjacent regions. Buddhism also propagated its aesthetic and architectural elements, leaving a distinct trace of its impact in nearby areas. Buddhism in the Gandhara region experienced three glorious periods marking its role in spreading Buddhism to the surrounding areas with the name known as Northern Buddhism or Mahāyāna Buddhism. Ancient Gandhara is a marked land, and there are many archaeological details that prove Gandhara is a land of Mahāyāna Buddhism based on the aspect of history, commentators, and scriptures. Archaeological evidence and opinions about history are diverse among historians and archaeologists. In the ancient Gandhara, Buddhism spread widely in Central and East Asia, and the preaching activity was constantly promoted in a vast kingdom from Central India through Afghanistan to Central Asian regions, Chinese, Nepal, Tibet, and other countries.
In addition, the Mahasanghika tradition of Hinayana broke away from the Theravada in 349 BCE, several years after the Second Buddhist Council. Gandhara became home to many Mahasanghikas. At Hadda, the central Afghan city close to Jalalabad in the present. As Afghanistan’s primary Buddhist tradition, Mahasanghika has established roots. The Sarvastivada School of Hinayana likewise split from Theravada towards the conclusion of Ashoka’s reign. In Kashmir, Sarvastivada was introduced. Kashmiri monks quickly introduced the Sarvastivada School of Hinayana to the Graeco- Bactrian Empire around 239 BCE. Sarvastivada subsequently travelled to Afghanistan’s southeast as well.
Around the Asoka dynasty in the third centuries Bc and Kanishka 127-159, Gandhara was considered a place of cross- religious cultures between Iran, Greek, and India, also here marking the development of art and Buddhism flourished and at the same time; Gandhara was the cradle of spreading Mahāyāna Buddhism to other countries through the Silk Road such as China, Nepal, Tibet and other countries with Mahāyāna Sūtras and famous commentators.
Location and Geography:
Map of Gandhara102
Ancient Gandhara was a central commerce hub along the Silk Road, connecting China, South Asia, and the Mediterranean for millennia. It was situated in the rugged foothills of the Himalayas
- Source : https://www.worldhistory.org/Gandhara_Civilization/
in what is now northwest Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. Many conquerors including the Greeks, Parthians, and Kushans, who brought with them a variety of religious practices and aesthetic standards, were drawn to Gandhara’s strategic location and wealth. Thus, a large portion of Gandharan art is a powerful fusion of foreign aesthetics that ultimately provided the region’s Buddhist religious aspirations a visual shape. The Gandharan people adopted Buddhism, which had originated in north India, and used their affluence to invest significant amounts of money in creating Buddhist monasteries and sacred locations.
The Peshawar Valley and surrounding areas along the Kabul River, which are located roughly 100 miles between the Suleiman Mountains at the edge of the Iranian plateau to the west and the Indus River to the east, were known in antiquity as Gandhara. Gandhara is now equivalent to the region surrounding Peshawar, the capital of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan.103
- Zwalf, A Catalogue of the Gandhara Sculpture in the British Museum, vol I, London, 1996, pp 11-19.
Map of Pakistan, North-West Frontier Province (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), Pakistan104
Greater Gandhara refers to the surrounding areas, which include the Swat Valley to the north, western Punjab, including the ancient metropolis of Taxila to the east, eastern Afghanistan to the west, and Bactria (modern northern Afghanistan and southern Uzbekistan) to the north, and even parts of the Tarim Basin region in Central Asia. During the early centuries of the Common Era, all of these regions came under the cultural influence of Gandhara. They embraced the Gandhr language as a literary and administrative medium and Gandhian Buddhism as their primary religion.
In particular, during the rule of the Kushan emperors in the first and second centuries CE, Gandhra’s influence on art and politics
-map.htm spread to Central Asia. This allowed Gandhra to profit from the lucrative trade in luxury goods that took place between China and the West along the silk roads. In addition to the economic advantages that the silk road traffic brought to Gandhara, it also stimulated the development of a diverse Buddhist culture incorporating Central Asian and Hellenistic ideas and imagery. It also paved the way for the export of Buddhism into Central Asia and China.
The first Buddhists arrived in Gandhara.
The beginning of Buddhism in Gandhara went back no further than the middle of the third century B.C, According to the history of Buddhism, a monk from Varanasi who was also a pupil of Ananda, the introduction of Buddhism to Kashmir can be traced back to Majjhantika. According to the Third Buddhist Council, after the Third Buddhist Council came to a close, Ashoka dispatched missionaries to various kingdoms to disseminate Buddhism throughout the world. Majjhantika was dispatched to Kashmir and Gandhara (modern-day Afghanistan), 105to a Buddhist Order. The Sarvastivadin school became the dominant Buddhist school in Kashmir and Gandhara.106 Around the third century BCE, Buddhism arrived in Gandhara, which played an essential role in the Indian Subcontinent. Gandhara served as the entry point for the expansion of Buddhism throughout China and Central Asia. Buddhism flourished rapidly and gained local patronage through three periods: The “Ashoka edicts” issued by ‘King Ashoka’ are the earliest examples of Buddhism in Gandhara. The usage of “Gandhari language” over Ashoka edicts indicates the presence of Buddhism in Gandhara. The rapid expansion of Buddhism during Asoka’s time to various parts of India resulted in the rise of the Buddhist sect, whose number was eighteen.107
- Nalinaksha Dutt, Mahāyāna Buddhism, Vavrang, Dehli, 1978,
- Hirakawas, A History Of India Buddhism: From Sakyamuni To Early Mahāyāna . University of Hawaii Press, 1990, p229.
- P.V. Bapat, 2500 years of Buddhism, Publication Division, New Dehli, 1956, p.62
Map of the Buddhist missions during the reign of Ashoka108
Ashoka, the Mauryan Emperor (273–232 BCE), supported Theravada Buddhism. Later in his reign, Maharakkhita headed a Theravadan mission that was despatched to Gandhara. The mission built “Ashoka pillars” with Buddhist-inspired decrees as far south as Kandahar. Theravada established a negligible presence in Afghanistan as a result of these efforts.
In 239 BCE, the local Greek nobility of Bactria rebelled against Seleucid rule and gained independence, establishing the Graeco Bactrian kingdom. Kashmiri monks soon come to Bactria in order to spread the theory of the Sarvastivada School of Hinayana. In 197 BCE, the Graeco-Bactrians conquered Gandhara; Sarvastivada subsequently travelled to Afghanistan’s southeast. Hellenistic art, notably its depiction of the human figure and the draping of robes, was greatly affected by the subsequent extensive connection
between Greek and Indian cultures.
In the second period, King Menander-I strongly supported Buddhism and did everything in his power to spread the faith. An anthropomorphic depiction of Buddha may be seen for the first time thanks to the Greek influence on Gandharan Buddhist art. King Menander( pali: Milinda), in 160 – 125, ruled over a region encompassing parts of modern India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. King Milinda is credited as a philosopher as well as a general and is known to have had a discussion with the Buddhist monk Nagasena in which the king asked about complex or unfamiliar points from the Buddhist teachings as Milinda spoke to the six heretics.109
Menander was very interested that Buddhism could be real, as evidenced by the coins issued by this king in the shape of a wheel similar to the Buddhist chakra.110
Under the reign of King Menander, Buddhism had a significant position and was very prosperous. The number of monks and nuns is vast. According to Mahavamsa, 111 30,000 monks for the dedication ceremony of the Maha Thupa (“Great stupa”) at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka came from Alasandra by Thero Mahadhammarakkhita.
During the third period, Kushans also favoured Buddhism, hence promoting the construction of monasteries and stupas. Due to the utmost struggle, several Buddhist centres were found in Gandhara at the end of the 2nd century CE. The capital city of the Kushan empire (Peshawar) had several Buddhist stupas and monasteries; besides this narrative reliefs and sculptures were erected depicting the life scenes of Buddha. Around the 3rd century, The Buddhist sites of this period included Taxila, Takht-I-Bahi112, Sehri Bahlol, Jamal Garhi,
- The six heretics are best known from the Smaññaphalasutta (Discourse on the Fruit of the Life of a Recluse) of the Dighanikaya, DNI, pp. 46–86). In this sutta the tenets of six famous teachers of the time of the Buddha are disputed and refuted in a discussion in the presence of the King Ajatasatru of Magadha.
- The cakrais the symbol for the Buddha’s
- Mahavamsa, Chapter
- Buddhist Ruins of Takht-i-Bahi and Neighbouring City Remains Ranigat, and Tharei, which the king supported. Buddhism continued to grow quickly down the Silk Road to Bactria, Central Asia, and China because the Kushans supported it. Additionally, it offered a secure conduit for trade between Gandhara and Asia. Butkara Stupa and Barikot, both in Pakistan, are significant remnants of the Kushan period. The White Huns’ entrance into Gandhara during the second half of the Fifth Century marked the beginning of the Kushans’ demise. However, the fall of Buddhist sites may be seen shortly after the collapse of the White Huns in the sixth century. Chinese Monk Xuan Zang visited the Gandhara region and discovered several abandoned sites. However, Buddhism preserved the prosperous Gandharan periphery.
Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka the Great (dotted line), which saw the height of Gandhāran Buddhist expansion.113
at Sahr-i-Bahlol The Buddhist monastic complex of Takht-i-Bahi (Throne of Origins) was founded in the early 1st century. Owing to its location on the crest of a high hill, it escaped successive invasions and is still exceptionally well preserved which is one of the most imposing relics of Buddhism in the Gandhara region of Pakistan.
Map_of_the_Kushan_Empire.png
According to the Fourth Buddhist Council, King Kanishka (78-101 BC) was an essential milestone in the history of Buddhism in India. At that time, the Sarvastivādins of the Mahasanghikas were firmly rooted in Kashmir and Gandhara. It marked the rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism and the birth of Buddhist literary works with brilliant names such as Parsa, Asvaghosa, and Vasumitra ... Tripitaka was translated to Sanskrit, which was the starting point for the development of Mahāyāna later. In the field of art, This was the period of the Gandhara art school with many statues of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas bearing the ancient Greek body art. During the Kanishka dynasty, Buddhism spread widely in Central and East Asia with the patronage of the king, and the preaching activity was constantly promoted in a vast kingdom from Central India through Afghanistan to Central Asian regions.114
By the side of some of his relic-stupa, Asoka also erected tall pillars of stone, crowned by lions or other symbolical animals and usually inscribed with one or more of his edicts. These depicted in the sculptured panels of the early Indian and Gandhara Schools come to be regarded as distinctive symbols of the Buddhist monastery. The fines of the pillars were executed by Greek or Perso- Gree sculptors; others by local artisans, with or without foreign supervision. Kaniska’s reign is significant in Buddhist history. He was a great patron of the tradition and associated with a galaxy of Buddhist gurus who moulded Buddhism in later centuries. At this time, the Indo-Greek school of Buddhist art flourished the most. Monks from India brought Buddhism to Central Asia and China. At the same time, a new kind of Buddhism, the Mahāyāna , with far-reaching implications emerged.
In the middle of the 2nd century AD, the Sangha in Gandhara was important in spreading Buddhism to northern and eastern Asia. Lokaksema (178 AC), who came to propagate in Luoyang (Lo- yang) capital, became the first person to translate the Mahāyāna Sūtras into Chinese. Since then, a clear road has been firmly
- Nalinaksha Dutt, Mahāyāna Buddhism, Navarng, New Dehli, 1978,
p24
established for introducing Buddhism to China.
The Spread of Buddhism to AD 600115
According to scholars they point out that almost all the Kharosthiinscriptions are Buddhist, with the following Buddhist schools attested. The Kasyapiyas school, Dharmaguptakas, Sarvastivadins (at Peshawar, Zeda and Kurram), A Mahasamghika monastery at Wardak.
- Source: Oxford Atlas of World History, Oxford University Press,
- General Editor Patrick K. O’Brien. (p. 44)
When Xuanzang came to India in the seventh century, he saw these four Buddhist schools still present. The Dharmaguptakas and the Sarvastivadins played a significant role in spreading Buddhism outside of India.
Philosopher of Buddhism in Gandhara
Gandhara Buddhism played an important role in spreading Buddhadharma abroad based on two crucial factors: the patronage of kings and talented Buddhist commentators. Famous Buddhist commentators associated with the ancient land of Gandhara have contributed to the development of Buddhism not only in India but also abroad with the philosophy of Sarvastivada and young Mahāyāna Buddhism, such as:
Vasumitra followed the Sarvastivada school of mahāsāṃghika, who lived in the second century CE. He was a Gandhra native who presided over Kanishka I is fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir, and participated in 500 monks. He is acknowledged as having contributed to the Mahāvibhāṣā. This council was the starting point for the development of Mahāyāna later, and also, thanks to King Kanishka, Buddhism was transmitted to China around the 2nd century AD.
Lokaksema was born in Gandhara, a center of Greco-Buddhist art, when Buddhism was promoted by Kanishka the Great, the ruler who held the Fourth Buddhist Council. This council indeed supervised the formal separation of Nikaya and Mahāyāna Buddhism. Kanishka appears to have been open to Mahāyāna Buddhism, paving the door for missionary activity in China by monks like Lokakema. Lokaksema arrived in the Han capital of Luoyang near the conclusion of Emperor Huan of Han’s reign, between 178 and 189 CE, and translated several Mahāyāna Buddhist books into Chinese.
Kumāralāta116 (3rd century) was the founder of the Sautrāntika school of Buddhism in Gandhāran. The collection features realistic
- Somewhere, he is also mentioned as Kumaralābha,a corruption of Kumaralāta narratives that portray the religious sensibility of those social classes. Kumralta’s work Kalpanmaitik Dntapakti (“Garland of Examples,” henceforth Kumralta’s Garland) reflects an urgent expression of Buddhist urban businesspeople’s essential ideals. It emphasises religious piety, the pursuit of riches, social acceptability, a strong work ethic, and rational decision-making. Kumāralāt, together with Nāgārjuna, Āryadeva, and Aśvaghoṣa, is reckoned as the four suns of Jambudvīpa.117He was the contemporary of Nāgārjuna.
Vasubandhu (4th century) Vasubandhu is considered one of the most influential thinkers in the Gandharan Buddhist philosophical tradition. In Jōdo Shinshū118 , he is considered the Second Patriarch; in Chan Buddhism, he is the 21st Patriarch. His writing Abhidharmakośakārikā (“Commentary on the Treasury of the Abhidharma”) is widely used in Tibetan and East Asian Buddhism.
First, Vasubandhu studied the Buddhism of the Sarvastivada sect (also called Vaibhāṣika, who upheld the Mahavibhasa) school which was dominant in Gandhara, taking the Mahavibhasa-sastra as his guideline, because of numerous doubts, and eventually relocated to Kashmir to study with the chiefs of the orthodox Sarvastivada branch there. Later, under the influence of his brother Asanga, he was converted to Mahāyāna ideas, after which he wrote a number of lengthy treatises, particularly on Yogacara theories and Mahāyāna Sūtras. He preached the Dharma with more than 600 verses with the aim of explaining all the Mahavibhasa-sastra forming the Abhidharma-kosa-sastra .
- Jambudvīpa (Sanskrit: Pali: Jambudīpa) is a name often used to describe the territory of Greater India in Ancient Indian sources. The term is based on the concept of dvīpa, meaning “island” or “continent” in Ancient Indian cosmogony.
- Jōdo Shinshū (浄土真宗, “The True Essence of the Pure Land Teaching”, also known as Shin Buddhism or True Pure Land Buddhism, is a school of Pure Land Buddhism. It was founded by the former Tendai Japanese monk Shinran. Shin Buddhism is the most widely practiced branch of Buddhism in
As mentioned above, after turning to the Mahāyāna , Vasubandhu devoted himself to the Mahāyāna ‘s practice, study, and commentaries. Most influential in the East Asian Buddhist tradition has been the Vimśatikāvijñaptimātratāsiddhi, the “Twenty Verses on Consciousness Only”, with its commentary (Viṃśatikāvṛtti), the Triṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā, the “Thirty Verses on Consciousness-only” and the “Three Natures Exposition” (Trisvabhāvanirdeśa). Vasubandhu also wrote a text on Buddhist Hermeneutics, the Proper Mode of Exposition (Vyākhyāyukti). Vasubandhu thus became a prominent Mahāyāna master and scholar.119
Asanga (4th century) was “one of the most important spiritual figures” of Mahāyāna Buddhism and the “founder of the Yogachara school”. He was born in Puruṣapura, modern-day Peshawar, Pakistan. Arya Asanga was one of Indian Buddhism’s leading scholars in the middle Mahāyāna period, fourth - sixth centuries
C.E. His encyclopedic Bodhisattvabhumi is considered to be one
of Buddhism’s foremost expositions of bodhisattva doctrine, His
- Vasubandhu was a prolific author of Buddhist treatises, including: Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa (Explanation of the Five Aggregates),
Karmasiddhiprakarana (“A Treatise on Karma”)
Vyākhyāyukti (“Proper Mode of Exposition”), Vādavidhi (“Rules for Debate”), Catuhśataka-śāstra
Mahāyāna śatadharmā-prakāśamukha śāstra, Amitayus sutropadeśa
(“Instruction on the Amitabha Sutra”)
Discourse on the Pure Land, Vijnaptimatrata Sastra (“Treatise on
Consciousness only”)
Mahāyānasaṃgrahabhāṣya (Commentary to the Summary of the Great
Vehicle of Asanga)
Dharmadharmatāvibhāgavṛtti (Commentary on Distinguishing Elements from Reality), Madhyāntavibhāgabhāṣya (Commentary on Distinguishing the Middle from the Extremes), Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārabhāṣya (Commentary on the Ornament to the Great Vehicle Discourses), Dasabhūmikabhāsya (Commentary on the Ten Stages Sutra)
Commentary on the Aksayamatinirdesa-sutra, Commentary on the Diamond Sutra, Commentary on the Lotus Sutra
Paramārthasaptati, a critique of Samkhya, Commentary on the Lotus Sutra, Paramārthasaptati, a critique of Samkhya
book Mahāyānasaṃgraha is the key work of the Yogācāra school of Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy.
Asanga is well-known in the annals of Mahāyāna growth in India and in the distinguished lineage of his students, who are a major thread in the fabric of Asian Buddhism beyond India’s borders. Asanga excelled in religious studies, which comprised both Hinayana and Mahāyāna Sūtras. Asanga is claimed to have “converted” to the Mahāyāna and set out on a committed mission to learn from Maitreya Buddha, who resides in the Tusita heaven. The works associated with Asanga include “Five Books of Maitreya” and a number of other studies, including the Yogacarabhumi. There are tantric works associated with his name or that of Maitreyanatha.
CONCLUSION
Gandhara is not only a sacred land famous for Buddhism but also has played an important role in promoting and spreading Buddhism to the adjacent regions through the spread of its architectural and artistic features. Thus a clear picture of its influence can be seen in the neighbouring regions. Numerous stupas and monasteries have been discovered there even today, indicating that Buddhism was practiced there. Gandhara’s art and architecture have changed because various dynasties have ruled it. The Silk Route is regarded as a vital route since it served as a hub for trade and contributed significantly to the spread of Buddhism. Gandhara art synthesises religious and secular elements; in essence, it depicts Buddhism while incorporating various Greek and Roman cultural components. The Buddhist rock art of Gilgit Baltistan makes it clear that Buddhist pilgrims once painted the faith’s cult symbols on enormous boulders in order to honor them and spread their religion.
Gandharans is not only a vital place to spread Mahāyāna Buddhist thought to China, Korea, and Japan , deeply influenced East Asian philosophy, history, and culture. The place that marks the rise of Mahāyāna thought, Gandhara is not only the birthplace of Mahāyāna Buddhism and patriarchs of the faith who preached
Buddhism far and wide. However, it also became the birthplace of the Gandharan Civilization. However, also, Gandhara spread the Sarvastivada School to Pakistan and Afghanistan and was home to ancient and highly sacred Buddhist stupas in Peshawar Valley, Swat, Taxila, and Islamabad. It holds the Buddhist heritage sites and art of Bodhisattva of unmatched significance for Buddhists, scholars, and travellers.
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References
- (2008). “The Cultural Geography of Gandhara”. Gandhara: The Buddhist Heritage of Pakistan; Legends, Monasteries and Paradise. Germany
- Higham, Charles (2014), Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations, Infobase Publishing, pp. 209–, ISBN 978-1- 4381-0996-1.
- Hirakawas, A History Of India Buddhism: From Sahyamuni To Early Mahāyāna , University of Hawaii Press,
- Nalinaksha Dutt, Mahāyāna Buddhism, Vavrang, Dehli, 1978
- P.V.Bapat,2500 years of Buddhism, Publ.India: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, New Dehli, 1956.
- Erich Frauwallner, The Philosophy of Buddhism, Motilal
Banarsidass, Delhi, 2010 [1956].
- Khoinaijam Rita Devi (1 January 2007). History of ancient India: on the basis of Buddhist literature. Akansha Publishing ISBN 978-81-8370-086-3.
- Rama Karana Sarma (1993). Researches in Indian and Buddhist Philosophy: Essays in honour of Alex
- , Christian. (2008) “Early Buddhism and Gandhara”. Gandhara: The Buddhist Heritage of Pakistan; Legends, Monasteries and Paradise. Germany.
- Website
- https://www.burningcompass.com/world/buddhism- spread-map.html
- h t t p s: / / wi k i wa n d . c o m / e n / Hi st o r y _ o f _
Buddhism#Media/File:Map_of_the_Kushan_Empire.png
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THE ARTISTIC EXPRESSIONS OF BUDDHISM FROM GANDHARA AND MATHURA
Ven. Thich Quang Giao - Tran Ngoc Tai MA Student, Gautama Buddha University Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
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Abstract
efore adapting to the influences of other societies and its
distribution throughout the rest of Asia and the world, Buddhist art was born millennia after the real Gautama Buddha’s time in the Indian subcontinent, around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE. This was followed by its spread throughout the rest of Asia and the rest of the world.
Keywords: Buddhism, Mathura, Gandhara, Bodhisattva
Introduction
An initial phase that was Indian and aniconic (meaning that direct depictions of the Buddha were avoided) was followed by an iconic period (meaning that direct representations of the Buddha were used). This phase began about the 1st century AD. After that time, Buddhist art began to change and develop due to adapting to the aesthetics of new countries where religion was spreading.
It extended through Central Asia and into Eastern Asia, where it gave rise to the Northern branch of Buddhist art, and the east, to Southeast Asia, where it gave rise to the Southern branch.120
Content
The art Buddhism of Mathura
Mathura served as the Kushanas’ southern capital city for many years. It was by no means a singular location but rather a massive complex centered around the contemporary town of Mathura. It surrounded it for a radian of around 30 kilometres in all directions. During the Kusana period, Mathura had a significant demand for reddish sandstone. Because the significant architectural monuments in Mathura have yet to be preserved in their entirety, the discussion of the art of Mathura is restricted to architectural fragments and sculptures121.
Sculptures thought to have originated in the city of Mathura have been uncovered in various areas around India, including Sanchi, Sarnath, and the Northwest. This shows that Mathura was a supplier of works of art and that what may be referred to in a more general sense as the ‘Mathura style functioned as a model for painters at other sites (including Ahicchattra, Kosambi, Sarnath, and other locations in North India).
Sculptures from the Mathura school have several iconographic similarities to those from the Kusana period in the Northwest. On the other hand, the majority of them have a totally Indian stylistic legacy that appears to have developed independently. The so- called ‘Bhiksu Bala Bodhisattva’ is considered one of the most well-known illustrations created in the Mathura style. The figure was identified in the inscription as the Boddhisattva; however, it is a sculpture of the Buddha, as indicated by the costume and the absence of jewellery or any other ornamentation. The image
- Spink, Walter; “On the development of early Buddhist art in India”; The Art Bulletin 40; no. 2; in 1958: 95-104.
- Gupta, Vinay Kumar; Buddhism in Mathura: “a detailed study of Buddhist tradition, archaeology and art; Bharatiya Kala Prakashan,
was found at Sarnath and was carved out of sandstone that had a reddish colour. It has inscriptions both on the sculpture itself and on the stone post that supports a large stone umbrella over the head of the figure. The presence of a lion between the feet of the figure is suggestive of the figure being a portrayal of Sakyamuni. This is because the lion is the emblem of the Sakya clan, which Sakyamuni was born into, and because Sakyamuni is frequently referred to as Sakyasimha, which literally translates to ‘the Lion of the Sykyas’.122
The figure is displayed in a frontal orientation, with no bending or flexing at any point in its body’s motion. The fat body and husky physique appear to also come from the cashier Indian form type and provide a striking contrast to the muscular and athletic-looking male figures that are present in the sculpture of the Northwest. The lower part of the garment resembles dhotis, with a ribbon around the waist. This clothing is reminiscent of the princely attire worn by male characters in earlier works of Indian sculpture. Finely carved lines suggest the folds of the skinny fabric, and the body shapes are evident through the clinging drapery. As a general rule, Buddha figures are not depicted with entirely base torsos; consequently, in contrast to some of the male figures already encountered in the Indian tradition, this figure has a length of drapery that goes across his left shoulder and hangs over his arm in a series of very fine pleats. This is in contrast to some of the other male figures encountered in the Indian tradition. Despite the significant amount of damage, the face shows ties to Indian tradition. This is evidenced by the stern smile, overaged features, and the spherical, hefty contour of the face itself. His head, shaved like a monk’s, stands in stark contrast to the hairstyles of Buddha figures from the Northwest. There were laksanas, and the earlobes were stretched out, all presumably common characteristics of Buddha statues regardless of the sculptural tradition.123
- Dehejia, “Buddhism and Buddhist Art.” Metropolitan Museum of Arts, 2007.
- Grünwedel, Albert; Buddhist art in India; Quaritch; 1901.
According to the shards that were discovered next to the statue, the right arm was initially positioned in the abhaya mudra pose. This posture is most frequently seen in Buddha images from the Kusana period from the Mathura school. A tight fist is formed with the left hand, and it is pressed up against the hip. A halo, which has been removed, was positioned behind the head. The enormous chattra initially supported over the head of the figure serves as a symbol of rank and protection and represents the transcending victory that comes with achieving enlightenment. The bottom has a curving design that features an open lotus motif, mythological monsters, and other Buddhist motifs or auspicious symbols.124
At Katsa, within the Mathura complex, an example of a scatted Buddha image that had been perfectly preserved was discovered. The sculpture has the form of a type that became prevalent in Kusana and post-Kusan Buddhist art after it was first developed. A big Buddha is seated in the middle on a simhasana, also known as a lion’s throne. His feet are in vajraparyankasana, and his right hand is in Abhaya mudra. Behind his head is a large halo with scalloped edges that represent flame or light, and above this is a portion of a papal tree that has been rendered with great accuracy. The scatted figure is flanked on either side by two islanding bodhisattvas that are significantly lower in scale and serve as attendants. Bodhisattvas in Mathura are shown in the same manner as those found in the Northwest: princely types decorated with jewelry and headdresses.125
Rhi, Ju-Hyung; From bodhisattva to Buddha: “The beginning of iconic representation in Buddhist art”; Artibus Asiae 54; no. ¾; in 1994: 207-225.
Two Bodhisattvas who are frequently depicted in Buddhist art are Vajrapana, who holds a vajra in his right hand, and
- Sharma, Ramesh Chandra; “Buddhist Art: Mathura School”; (No Title) in 1995.
- Rhi, Ju-Hyung; From bodhisattva to buddha: “The beginning of iconic representation in Buddhist art”; Artibus Asiae 54; no. ¾; 1994: 207-225.
Avalokitesvara, also known as Padmapani, who holds a lotus. Both of these Bodhisattvas are known as Padmapani and Avalokitesvara, respectively. Wisdom is considered one-half of the complete condition of Buddhahood, and Vajrapani is the deity that personifies this aspect of Buddhahood. Compassion is the second half of Buddhahood, and Padmapani, as the incarnation of Avalokitesvera, personifies compassion in this role. There is some debate on the precise significance of the vajra and Padma characteristics that Bodhisattvas hold. It can be difficult to tell whether these figures represent bodhisattvas or the two gods of Brahman, Indra, and Brahma. Indra is typically pictured in regal clothes, and Brahma is typically portrayed as a recluse. Bodhisattvas, on the other hand, wear saffron robes. In some of the artwork from Mathura, the Buddha of the following age, Maitreya, can also be shown.126
In the same way that life episodes of Sakyamuni Buddha were portrayed in the Northwest during the Kusana period, they were also depicted in Mathura. The events are presented in a condensed form, and the primary focus is on the most significant ones. Although Mathura art is fundamentally Indian (it is thought of as a direct development of the early sculpture of central India), it does contain a few elements that point to Western influence. Mathura art was created in the city of Mathura in northern India. 127
The art Buddhism of Gandhara
Art in Gandhara has benefited from centuries of contact with Greek culture since Alexander the Great’s conquests in 332 BCE. Because of this exchange, Greco-Buddhist art was born, which led to the rise of Indo-Greek and Greco-Bactrian dynasties, which led to the conquests of Alexander the Great. Gandharan Buddhist sculpture displays traces of Greek aesthetic influence, and it has been
- Myer, Prudence R; “Bodhisattvas and Buddhas: Early Buddhist Images from Mathurā”; Artibus Asiae , 1986: 107-142.
- Sharma, Ramesh “Buddhist Art: Mathura School.” (No Title) (1995).
hypothesized that the concept of the ‘man-god’ was fundamentally inspired by the culture of Greek mythology. The Gandharan school of sculpture is credited with several artistic contributions, including curly hair, drapery that covered both shoulders, shoes, sandals, ornaments made of acanthus leaf, and so on.
In addition to Taxila’s remains, Gandhara’s sculptures have been discovered in many other ancient sites in Afghanistan and West Pakistan. They are predominately made up of depictions of the Buddha and relief sculptures that depict scenes from Buddhist canonical works. Several statues of Bodhisattvas were carved from the stone. A representation of Gandhara depicts the Buddha’s first sermon, which took place in a park with deer, and his death. In each of these sculptures, the human body is rendered realistically, even though it is draped. These sculptures tend to mould the human form realistically, paying great attention to accuracy and physical details, especially in depicting muscles, moustaches, and other such features. In addition, a distinguishing feature is formed by the representation of the thick and bold fold lines. In light of this, the sculptures uncovered in Gandhara contrast remarkably to those seen in other parts of India.128
The majority of Gandharan art was devoted to depicting Buddhist concepts. The mother of the Buddha has been compared to a matron from Ancient Greece. A face resembling Apollo was included in the creation of a Buddhist scene. The statue of Athena of Rome at Lahore is considered one of the loveliest Gandhara sculptures reflecting a Western topic. It was found in Lahore. The blue-grave schist used to craft this sculpture can only be found in Gandhara, where it was used to make the artwork. Even though the Gandhara technique was essentially lifted from Greek art, the spirit of this particular art form is fundamentally Indian. It was utilized to give voice to Buddhists’ practices and beliefs. There are a few notable exceptions, but overall, the extant specimens have not been found to have any Greek art elements. The artist from
- Cheema11, Iqtidar “The Historical Origins and Development
of Gandhara Art.” International Journal 8 (2007): 75-91.
Gandhara had the dexterity of a Greek but the compassion of an Indian.129
At Guldara, in Afghanistan, several large Gandhara stupas and monasteries have been preserved as ruins. After some time, a votive stupa from the region of Loriyaan Tangai in Gandhara was discovered. If this is the model for the stupa in Gandhara, then the structure of the stupa has undergone significant evolution since the huge stupa at Sanchi, which was built in the form of a dome.
The dome’s height at Gandhara increased as the square railing surrounding its peak became more extensive and ornate. The stupa that Kanishka built just outside the walls of modern-day Peshawar is widely considered to be the most impressive of all the Gandhara structures. In this location, the stupa had also been destroyed, but a reliquary (a container for relics) belonging to Kanishka was discovered. Another reliquary of this type was discovered in Afghanistan at a site called Bimaran.130
At the very least until the eighth century, this specific Gandharan design aesthetic persisted. The motifs that were used in Sassanian textile patterns can be seen reflected in the paintings found in the valley. The most impressive work of art hewn from the cliffs at Bamiyan are two enormous standing figures of the Buddha. The greatest of these figures begins as high as 175 feet in its stone niche, making it the most impressive work of art there. Lime plaster was used to finish the structure. The artwork is in the Gupta style, which was popular at the beginning of the fifth century. Fragments of murals similar to those produced by Gupta Buddhists at Ajanta may be seen hanging from the ceiling above the head of the figure.131
In the art of Gandhara, stucco was a frequently used technique. Stucco paintings can be found adorning the walls of
- Behrendt, Kurt The art of Gandhara in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metropolitan museum of art, 2007
- Brancaccio, Pia, and Xinru Liu; “Dionysus and drama in the Buddhist art of ”; in Journal of Global History 4, no. 2; 2009: 219-244.
many of Afghanistan’s monasteries. Terracotta was also utilized, particularly by people who had the financial means to purchase the stone sculpture. Figurines made of terracotta were utilized not just for play but also for ornamental purposes in residences. All of these offer fascinating looks at popular clothing and styles then.
Not long before Buddhism became linked with fertility cults and other popular forms of religious cultism, this connection is made abundantly clear when one considers the symbolic significance of the stupa and the brackets with female images found at Sanchi. In addition to Gandhara, sculpture first appeared at Sarnath, near Benaras—Mathura, located on the Yamuna, and ‘Amravati’ and Andhra Pradesh.132 They each have a wealth of exemplary sculptures in their collections. Each one of them has a unique sense of style.133
At the same time the Buddha icon was being created in Gandhara, portraits of the Buddha based on the Yaksha model were being crafted in Mathura, located in the southern part of India. Even before the arrival of the Kushans, this location served as a center for religious activity. During the Kushan and Gupta periods, it is believed that Buddhist and Jain’s practices coexisted peacefully and that Jain practices were practiced alongside Buddhist ones. Some academics believe that the worship of Buddha in Mathura resulted in the creation of an icon at the very earliest in Gandhara. King Vima Kadphises and King Kanishka in a standing position are depicted in two significant protein fragments. From these two pieces, one might infer what the Kushans wore on their bodies as clothing.
To sum up, the Gandhara style strongly emphasised the precision of atomic details and the aesthetic appeal of the figures, whereas the Mathura school aimed to imbue the images with
- Cheema11, Iqtidar “The Historical Origins and Development
of Gandhara Art.” International Journal 8 (2007): 75-91.
- Marshall, “The Buddhist Art of Gandhara (Memoirs of the
Department of Archaeology in Pakistan).” (1982): 112.
sublime and spiritual sensations. The first was grounded in reality,
while the other was more utopian.
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References
- Spink, Walter. “On the development of early Buddhist art in ” The Art Bulletin 40, no. 2 (1958): 95-104.
- Gupta, Vinay Kumar. Buddhism in Mathura:(a detailed study of Buddhist tradition, archaeology and art). Bharatiya Kala Prakashan,
- Dehejia, “Buddhism and BuddhistArt.” Metropolitan Museum of Arts (2007).
- Grünwedel, Albert. Buddhist art in India. B. Quaritch,
- Myer, Prudence “Bodhisattvas and Buddhas: Early Buddhist Images from Mathurā.” Artibus Asiae (1986): 107-142.
- Sharma, Ramesh “Buddhist Art: Mathura School.” (No Title) (1995).
- Cheema11, Iqtidar Karamat. “The Historical Origins and Development of Gandhara Art.” International Journal 8 (2007): 75-91.
- Behrendt, Kurt The art of Gandhara in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metropolitan museum of art, 2007.
- Brancaccio, Pia, and Xinru Liu. “Dionysus and drama in the Buddhist art of ” Journal of Global History 4, no. 2 (2009): 219-244.
- Brancaccio, Pia, and Xinru Liu. “Dionysus and drama in the Buddhist art of ” Journal of Global History 4, no. 2 (2009): 219-244.
- Cheema11, Iqtidar Karamat. “The Historical Origins and Development of Gandhara Art.” International Journal 8 (2007): 75-91.
- Marshall, John. “The Buddhist Art of Gandhara (Memoirs of the Department of Archaeology in Pakistan).” (1982):
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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BUDDHA STATUES IN GANDHARA BUDDHISM
Full name: Nguyễn Thị Kim Tiến
Dhamma name: Đức Trí
Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
Phone number: +84 0908053910 (Zalo, Messenger)
+91 9717 868 217 (WhatsApp)
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- Introduction
uddhist art is the reflection of concepts in Buddhism in
various art forms, especially in the areas of architecture, sculpture, and painting related to the Triple Gems. Starting from primitive times 2,500 years ago, up to now, Buddhist art has developed into a system of diversity and complexity.
It originates from the Indian subcontinent, firstly, people only symbolized the existence of Buddha with simple and indirect symbols such as the bodhi tree, the lotus, the wheel of dharma, or the Buddha’s footprint. That period is called by professional nouns the period of the aniconism. Therefore, the first images, especially the Buddha statues, appeared around the 1st century CE in the Gandhāra and Mathurā regions.
Today Gandhara lies in the northwest of Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. Gandhara is the gateway to the Indian subcontinent in ancient times, where many cultures and races meet as Greek,
Scythia, Parthians, and Kusanas.
Thus, Gandhara is a mixed school of visual arts, known by various names such as the Gandhara school, the Greco school, the Greco Romano, and the Indo - Hellenist. Therefore, Gandhara Art has more influence on carving Buddha statues nowadays in different areas such as East Asia and Southeast Asia.
II. History and geography
The boundaries of Gandhara range all in the course of history. Sometimes the Peshawar valley and Taxila have been called Gandhara together; from time to time, the Swat valley was also included. The coronary heart of Gandhara, despite, become usually being the Peshawar valley. In addition to Gandhara proper, the province moreover encompassed the Kabul Valley, Swat, and Chitral134.
Situated at the crossroads of India, China, and the Middle East, Gandhara has witnessed the grandeur and bloodshed of countless empires; the zeal of countless religions; and the art and beauty of myriad cultures, accumulated in the deft hands of sculptors over centuries.
The ancient region of Gandhara lies in northwest Pakistan, bounded by the Hindu Kush mountains to the west and the foothills of the Himalayas to the north. Between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, Gandhara fell to the Persian Achaemenid Empire, forming its easternmost province. In 330 BCE, Alexander of Macedon conquered the region, marking the beginning of Hellenism in Gandhara.The Indian Maurya dynasty took control soon after, and, with Emperor Asoka’s patronage of Dhamma or Buddhism, the then little-known creed of Siddhartha Gautama took firm root in ancient northwest Pakistan.
Following the Mauryas, a succession of short–lived dynasties
- Gandhara, retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Gandhara#cite_ref-27
struggled to dominate the prosperous and strategic region – the Indo
- Greeks, descendants of Alexander’s generals settled in Bactria (northern Afghanistan); the Parthians and Scythians, Persian
- speaking horsemen from the Iranian Ultimately the Kushana, a nomadic people originating from Central Asia, forged a mighty empire that stretched from the Aral Sea in the west to Pataliputra (Patna) in the east, with Gandhara at its administrative and cultural core.
Under the Kushana, particularly Emperor Kanishka (ca. 127
- 150 CE), Gandharan Civilization reached its Trade flourished, urban life in Gandharan capitals like Purushapura (Peshawar) and Takshasila (Taxila) thrived, and there was a renaissance of art and architecture. All gods and deities
- Zoroastrian, Greek, and Hindu – were honored, though the prevailing religion of the Kushan Empire was Mahāyāna The Mahāyāna school emerged in the1st century CE as a liberal, accessible interpretation of the Buddha’s teachings asopposed to the older, more conservative Theravada tradition; and it inspired the distinctive sculptures that Gandhara in today.
The prosperity of the Kushan Empire (1st – 4th century CE) and the cosmopolitan milieu of Gandhara produced an eclectic visual art - Greco – Roman in form and Buddhist in motif, borrowing heavily from Indian and Persian conventions, interestingly, some of the first anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha were created in Kushan Gandhara. Prior to this time, the Buddha was not depicted in human form, but through various symbols – a footprint, for instance, signifying that he was considered a mortal by the earlier Theravada Buddhists.
However, the Mahāyāna school promoted by Emperor Kanishka viewed the Buddha as a celestial being and emphasized the veneration of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas through icons. This may have been the main impetus for the life-like sculptures produced in Gandhara; indeed, the human depiction of the Buddha is the supreme contribution of Gandhara art to Buddhism and the world135.
III. Characteristics of Gandhara style
The characteristic of this school seeks to express Buddhist ideas in Greek forms. Images of Buddha and other deities followed the Greek deity pattern. Thepattern and style of the dress are also a copy of the template in Greece136.
Head of the Buddha, Gandharan style137 (from Harvard Art Museum, Cambridge)
Figure with classical facial features, a small mouth, slim nose, the crisp, planar intersection of brow and eyes, and wavy locks of
- Manal Khan, June 5, 2018, Gandhara sculpture at Lahore Museum, retrieved from https://windsweptwords.com/2013/10/11/ gandhara-scultpure/
- Ha Vu Trong, October 21, 2013, Phong cach Nghe thuat Hy Lap - Phat Giao o Gandhara, retrieved from https://thuviengdpt. info/phong-cach-nghe-thuat-hy-lap-phat-giao-o-gandhara/
- Harvard Art Museum, retrieved from: https://harvardartmuseums.org/ collections/object/192167
hair, this idealized photograph of a Buddha bears all of the Classical functions of Greek-stimulated Gandharan sculptures. The figure’s ushnisha, or cranial protuberance, which right here resembles a topknot of hair, is the maximum vital iconographic characteristic of a Buddha and represents a bodily manifestation of the Buddha’s accelerated expertise received at the time of his enlightenment.
Object details:
- Date: 2nd century
- Period: Kushan period, 100 BCE – 250 CE
- Culture: Gandharan
- Material: dark gray schist
- Dimensions: 40.3 x W. 20.2 x D. 22 cm
- Classification: sculpture
- Accession year: 1998
Standing Buddha Statue138 (From Kimbell Art Museum, Texas)
Standing Buddha, retrieved from: https://www.kimbellart.org/ collection/ap-196701
It turned into at some point during the Kushan duration in India that the photo of the Buddha turned into first found in human shape and the simple repertoire of Buddhist iconography was formulated.
One of the two awesome sorts of sculpture that emerged at some point of the length changed into produced in Gandhara (components of present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan). Gandharan artwork turned into closely inspired by the aid of using touch with Mediterranean traditions. From the fourth century B.C., with the close to conquest of South Asia via way of means of Alexander the Great, till the 5th century, those areas maintained common contacts inspired via way of means of trade.
Carved from grey schist, this Buddha could be carved into the area of interest of a rock temple. The monastic gowns cowl each shoulder, and the thick, heavy folds of material are naturalistically modeled and voluminous. The idealized Hellenistic face is smooth and oval-shaped with a straight nose and well-defined eyes showed half-closed as if in a state of meditation. The hair is presented in rippled lines, and the ushnisha (cranial bump) is described as a wavy topknot. The urna (tuft of hair among the eyebrows) is conceived as a raised circle among the brows. The arms, now missing, might have been raised in one of the five general mudras (gestures) that the Buddha makes.
Object details:
- Culture: Gandhara
- Date: 2nd – 3rd century A.D
- Period: Kushan period (c. 50 C – A.D. 320)
- Material: Gray schist
- Classification: sculpture
- Dimensions: 51 ½* 20 ¾ * 8 ½ in (130.8 * 7 * 21.6 cm)
- Accession number: AP 01
- Gallery location: Kahn Building, South Gallery
- Provenance: Nasli Heeramaneck Galleries, New York;
purchased by Kimbell Art Foundation, Fort Worth, 1967.
Fasting Buddha statue139
(from Lahore Museum, Lahore, Pakistan)
The statue of Fasting Siddhartha is considered not only the most effective because the best specimen of Gandhara Art however additionally as one of the rarest antiquities of the earliest world. This sculpture depicts the heroism of Buddha in his battle to obtain the solution to human suffering.
This photograph suggests an excellent of Gandhara craftsmen, the exquisite reliefs, the undercutting of the arms, and the open spaces so produced under the armpits create a stark picture of light and dark. That has enhanced the faith and belief of the adherents of any religious art.
- Fasting Siddhartha, retrieved from: https://artsandculture.google.com/ culturalinstitute/beta/exhibit/the-gandhara-gallery-lahore-
Object details:
- Title: Fasting Siddhartha
- Physical Location: Lahore Museum, Pakistan
- Location Created: Sikri (Gandhara Region), Khaibar Pakhtun Khuwa,Pakistan
- Period: 2nd – 4th century
- Physical Dimensions: 21” H.33” D.10”
- Rights: Lahore Museum, Lahore, Pakistan
- Material: Schist Stone Sculpture
- Accession year: 1894
IV. Influence
The harmony and mutual influence of Indian art at Mathura and the Greek artat Gandhara created a basic form for all Buddhist schools of art. With the spreadof Indian civilization across the Silk Road, almost at the same time, Buddhism and Hinduism went directly to Southeast Asia by sea and landed in the Mekong Delta to become the establishment of the Funan kingdom (Oc Eo culture), which lasted from the first century and gradually declined in the tenth century has reached its prosperity. Therefore, Oc Eo’s art had a direct relationship with Gandhara art, which can see through artifacts of various materials such as a metal,wood, stone, terracotta, gold leaf, etc. They appeared very early from the secondto third centuries, much earlier than the influence of China. Especially, the Buddha statues show the specific characteristics of the Southeast Asian indigenous. The astonishing shimmer of Buddhist art on the Mekong Delta is illuminations from the cradle - the heart of the Indian art mecca.
V. Conclusion
In brief, the Gandhara Buddhist art is the main turning point in
Buddhist history. It marks a new period when the Buddha image has shown a real person with bold harmony between India and ancient Greece. The Buddha image to archaeologists is simply an object used to observe, dissect and study but toward a practitioner of Buddhism, it is a means of helping to arouse sacred things spirituality in their hearts, reminds them of the Buddha’s teachings, and helps them find their true nature. Currently, the museums in the world are preserving many of the Buddha statues carved from the Gandhara period. In my opinion, these Buddha statues have historical value showing the skill and sophistication of the craftsmen at that time.
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References
- Gandhara, retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Gandhara#cite_ref-27
- Manal A. Khan, June 5, 2018, Gandhara sculpture at Lahore Museum, retrieved from https://windsweptwords. com/2013/10/11/gandhara-scultpure/
- Ha Vu Trong, October 21, 2013, Phong cach Nghe thuat Hy Lap - Phat Giao o Gandhara, retrieved from https:// info/phong-cach-nghe-thuat-hy- lap-phat- giao-o-gandhara/
- Harvard Art Museum, retrieved from: https:// org/collections/object/192167
- Standing Buddha, retrieved from: https://www.kimbellart. org/collection/ap-196701
- Fasting Siddhartha, retrieved from:
https://artsandculture.google.com/culturalinstitute/ beta/exhibit/the-gandhara- gallery-lahore- museum/0QJShMVC0XR1Jw?hl=en
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CHAPTER IV
THE REVIVAL MOVEMENTS OF BUDDHISM IN INDIA IN THE 20TH AND 21ST CENTURIES
DR. BHIMRAO RAMJI AMBEDKAR WITH SOCIAL CHANGE
EFFECTS IN INDIA
Ven. Thich Thanh Tam140
T
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Abstract
he uprising among millions for establishing a just social
order, Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar was a social reformer, a scholar, a remarkable law-giver; a patriot in a sense; and a far- sighted religious leader, was the hero of the contemporary Buddhist renaissance in India. Indeed, in the annals of the worldwide revival of Buddhism, Ambedkar stands out as a beacon light for all times and climes. Besides, his vision and wisdom have made a lasting contribution to the social consciousness of humanity. However, within the framework of this article, the author mentions his quests for cultural meaning and socially engaged Buddhism through his works, which brought a great revolution and raised the practical social change effects in India.
Keywords: Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, Buddhist beliefs, Engaged Buddhism, New development orientation, Sustainable Society.
- Standing member of Vietnam Buddhist Research Institute; Vice Director of the Center for Buddhist Studies and Translation of Vietnam Buddhist Research Institute.
1. Introduction
Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar - a great leader who made an outstanding contribution towards the making of the constitution of India and one such warrior for establishing a just social order
- announced embracing Buddhism141 on October 14, 1956, at Nagpur, with his total principles rooted in the philosophy of Tathāgata Buddha: “Positively, my social philosophy may be said to be enshrined in three words: liberty, equality and Let no one, however, say that I have borrowed my philosophy from the French Revolution, I have not. My philosophy has roots in religion and not in political science. I have derived them from the teachings of the Buddha, my Master.”142
The world witnessed this great event as an unprecedented phenomenon of mass conversion.143 This event acknowledges Dr.
R. Ambedkar as the greatest reviles of Buddhism of modern times and enhances the importance of his thoughts on Buddhism. Buddhism has given the ignored humanity a new life, and he became the savior. He, since the 1920s, remained engaged in giving a constructive and positive dimension to the philosophy of Buddha
- Ambedkar decided to renounce the Hindu religion on Oct. 13, 1935, a conference of the depressed class was held at Yeola (Nasik) and he declared “I was born as a Hindu but I will not die as a Hindu, for, this is in my power”. Singh, Ravi Shankar. (2011) “Dr. B. R. Ambedkar’s Role in Revival of Buddhism and It’s Impact on Socio-Economic Development of Ignored Humanity in India”, Buddhist Virtues in Socio-Economic Development. Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Press, p.150
- Government of (1991) Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar: Writings and Speeches, Vol.1, Education Department, p.503; Singh, Ravi Shankar. (2011) “Dr. B. R. Ambedkar’s Role in Revival of Buddhism and It’s Impact on Socio-Economic Development of Ignored Humanity in India”, Buddhist Virtues in Socio-Economic Development. Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University
Press, p.151. st
- In Mahar conference in Bombay on 31 May 1936, he said that
“Religion is for Man and not man for Religion.” (Singh, Ravi Shankar. (2011) “Dr. B. R. Ambedkar’s Role in Revival of Buddhism and It’s Impact on Socio- Economic Development of Ignored Humanity in India”, Buddhist Virtues in Socio-Economic Development. Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Press, p.151.
and leading to the establishment of an egalitarian, humane, and moral society.144
2. Quests for cultural meaning and socially engaged Buddhism’s spirit
The quest for ethical values, ritual and spiritual-cultivation practices, and transcendent meaning in a chaotic world while living a public existence in the new urban order often led to Buddhism. Some were clearly not turning to Buddhism as a refuge but rather as a rich moral-spiritual source to fuel social, cultural, and political activism. He came at a time when studying Buddhism had become fashionable; many revolutionaries talked about and made a big deal out of Buddhism.
They were central to local social-cultural political competition and relationships between lineage groups and to translineage community solidarity in the face of drought and epidemic. Moreover, they were not untouched by elite reformist winds, state-ordering projects, and the vicissitudes of social and political transformations. They were yet animating such religiosity, much as with the every day, often an amorphous desire for a sense of successful living, peace, stability, and social-personal completion captured in the idea of good fortune. So, what concerned them was basic attitudes in life: a heart of compassion and a causal system of just rewards. Of course, much of what obscures and shapes our attempts to perceive Buddhism in local society derives from modern state and elite reformist projects, which officially or in national public culture delegitimized and legitimized various forms and expressions of religiosity.
The term “Engaged Buddhism” became popular during the
- “I would say that the rise of Buddhism in India was as significant as French Revolution. Buddhism paved way for establishment of democracy.” (Singh, Ravi (2011) “Dr. B. R. Ambedkar’s Role in Revival of Buddhism and It’s Impact on Socio-Economic Development of Ignored Humanity in India”, Buddhist Virtues in Socio-Economic Development. Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Press, p.150.
1980s; that was coined in 1963 in his Lotus in a Sea of Fire by the venerable Thich Nhat Hanh and describes the struggle of his fellow-activist monks during the Vietnam War and offers a new interpretation of the ancient concept of liberation. This term attempts to actualize Buddhism’s ideals of wisdom and compassion and signifies the active involvement of Buddhist members in society and its problems. It is a compelling long-term solution to the problems and challenges of the contemporary society.
Thus, socially Engaged Buddhism seeks to liberate sentient from suffering. In the words of Sulak Sivaraksa, “It means deep commitment and personal transformation to be helped we must become more selfless and less selfish. To do this, we have to take more and more responsibility in society. This is the essence of Buddhism, from ancient times right up to the present.”145
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, through his magnum opus ‘Annihilation of Caste’, put forth a thesis that a political revolution was always preceded by a cultural revolution. Before conversion, he explained that he did not subscribe either to Hinayana or Mahāyāna . He described his concept of Buddhism as New Buddhism and called it Navayana. He interpreted Buddhism in the context of challenges facing the contemporary world.146 Thus, he emphasized that engaged Buddhism is no longer on personal goals associated with meaning, inner peace and freedom, and enlightened mind, but on the collective idea of worldly awakening, not in a future life or heavenly western paradise, but in this lifetime, on the ground.
From this perspective, by returning to its place of origin and embracing Buddhism, he sought to carry out a social and cultural revolution in India, making it the foundation of India’s new democratic social order.
- Sherwood, Patricia. (2001) Journal of Buddhist Ethics, V.8, Edith Cowan University, pp.61-74.
- Mungekar, L. & Rathore Akash Singh, ed. (2007) Buddhism and the Contemporary World: An Ambedkarian Perspective, Dr. Ambedkar Institute of Social and Economic change, p.35.
3. The social changes in India through Ambedkar’s work
- Political Rights as an Instrument of social change and labours welfare programs
The revived Buddhism in India, archaeologically, by James Princep, Alexander Cunningham, Sir William Jones, etc., continued from 1750 A.D. to 1890 A.D.; religiously, began with the arrival of Anagarika Dharmapala - young Sinhalese Buddhist, established the Maha Bodhi Society in Ceylon of May 31, 1891, and his contribution to the revival of Buddhism. But, in 1950, an example of the application of the social doctrines of Buddhism on the mass level was seen by the Indian people, the Lion from the capital of Asoka and the Buddhist Wheel of Dharma was adopted by Dr. B.R.Ambedkar,147 who was the chairman of the Drafting Committee as National Symbols for Independent India.
Thus, even as Liang helped to lay the foundation for modern Indian political culture, Ambedkar advocated a special role for the Buddhist. Because nowadays the Buddhist modernism that had begun to circulate around the globe and become popular among intellectuals. He argued that achieving progress in India would require a religious belief and that Buddhism rather than Christianity or Hinduism would serve India best in the modern age. He said, “Buddhism is a part and parcel of Bharatiya culture. I have taken care that my conversion will not harm the condition of the culture and history of this land”.148
Recently, however, the explosive revitalization has rapidly
- “I prefer Buddhism because it gives three principles in combination which no other religion does. All other religions are bothering themselves with ‘god’, ‘soul’ and ‘life after death’. Buddism teaches ‘Prajna’ (understanding as against superstition and super naturism). It teaches ‘Karuna’ (compassion). It teaches ‘Samta’ (equality). This is what make there appeal to me. These three principles also make appeal to the Neither god nor soul can save society.” (Singh, Ravi Shankar. (2011) “Dr. B. R. Ambedkar’s Role in Revival of Buddhism and It’s Impact on Socio-Economic Development of Ignored Humanity in India”, Buddhist Virtues in Socio-Economic Development. Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Press, p.153)
- Singh, Ravi (2011) “Dr. B. R. Ambedkar’s Role in Revival raised the visibility of religion in the modern period as a whole. A religious studies scholarship has emerged to challenge long- standing social scientifc assumptions of secular modernity. They has raised new questions about how Indian religious life has changed and adapted, rather than simply declined, under modern conditions. This scholarship has sought primarily to trace the transformation of religious traditions, communities, practices, and institutions under the impact of modern ideologies and social pro- cesses such as the spread of nationalism, the growth of the capitalist economy, and the rise of the secular state.149
The study of modern Indian Buddhism, although rarely integrated with this religious studies scholarship, has also been centered primarily on the transformation and reinvention of religious traditions and has recently been spurred by their heightened visibility in India today. Among others, has taken an intellectual-history approach to this subject by examining how important Buddhist thinkers of the era reinterpreted Buddhist doctrinal traditions, often in response to modern ideologies like anarchism or scientism.
Its contributors are pioneering new research to recover the dynamic and creative roles played by Buddhists and Buddhism in modern India from the early twentieth century to the present. They clarify in detail formative processes and distinctive endeavors not just vital to the making of particular forms of modern Indian Buddhism and Buddhist experience but also revealing significant, of Buddhism and It’s Impact on Socio-Economic Development of Ignored Humanity in India”, Buddhist Virtues in Socio-Economic Development. Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Press, p.151.
- He says, “If liberty is the ideal, if liberty means the destruction of
the dominion, which one man holds over another, then obviously, it cannot be insisted upon that economic reform only. If the source of power and dominion is, at any given time or in any given society, social and religious, then social reform and religious reforms must be accepted as the necessary sort of reform.” (Singh, Ravi Shankar. (2011) “Dr. B. R. Ambedkar’s Role in Revival of Buddhism and It’s Impact on Socio-Economic Development of Ignored Humanity in India”, Buddhist Virtues in Socio-Economic Development. Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Press, p.153)
long-overlooked consequential Buddhist presences, interventions amid, and contributions to the historical development of India.
He argued, since beginning, politics was a powerful instrument of social change and that the problems of the untouchables, from such perspective, were essentially political problems. Therefore, in 1936, he formed the Independent Labour Party (ILP) and in 1937, fought the first provincial election in Maharashtra. The ILP manifesto was entirely devoted to the problems and welfare of the industrial workers, women, peasants, untouchables and all down-trodden sections of society. After, due to certain political compulsions, he had to wind up the ILP and 1946, formed the All India Scheduled Castes Federation. Though it did not succeed, what is important emphasize sharing political power as an instrument of social change.
From 1942-1946, Dr. Ambedkar was a member of the British Viceroy’s Executive Council and was assigned the portfolio of Labour. That laid the foundation of free India’s Labour policy; he implemented welfare programs for the working classes and initiated such policies and legislation that practically covered all sectors of the economy and all aspects of labor.
- Struggle for human rights of the untouchables and emancipation of women
He formed the Outcastes Welfare Association in 1924 and began his movement with the battle to establish the untouchables’ fundamental human rights. He announced, “There was only man who raise his voice against separatism and untouchability and that was god Buddha.”150
The untouchables, for instance, had no access to drinking water from the public ponds and wells that were open to animals.
- Singh, Ravi Shankar. (2011) “Dr. B. R. Ambedkar’s Role in Revival of Buddhism and It’s Impact on Socio-Economic Development of Ignored Humanity in India”, Buddhist Virtues in Socio-Economic Development. Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Press, 152.
He, therefore, led his historic satyagriha with thousands of his followers to the Chavadar tank in the town of Mahad in Raigad district of the state of Maharashtra on March 25, 1927, and succeeded in accessing the water of tank.
In the Ambedkarian Movement of social emancipation of the untouchables, the Chavadar tank satyagriha became the turning point and milestone. After, he turned to the temple Kalaram’s entry
- like on occasion in Mahad, at Nasik, Maharashtra. Ambedkar was least interested in temple entry for the religious purpose, that just wanted to establish temple entry as a basic human right of the 151
As the Minister of Law of Independent India, Dr. Ambedkar is sell-known his concern towards the emancipation of women like untouchables, that prepared the Hindu Code Bill to give Hindu women all rights on par with men. Ambedkar was so committed to the cause of the women folk and their empowerment that he unhesitatingly resigned when the government could not see the legislation through.
His decision to form the People’s Education Society in 1945 was One of the most remarkable revolutionary contributions of Dr. Ambedkar to the cause of the upliftment of the downtrodden sections. Because Dr. Ambedkar knew the importance of education as an instrument of personal empowerment and social liberation or sustainable society, he located the college in the business and commercial heart of the city of Mumbai, which enabled thousands of working students, both belonging to the depressed sections to pursue higher education; otherwise, the doors of higher education to them would have permanently been closed. Because he knew that the students from people with low incomes and socio- economically backward communities would not be able to pursue
- Singh, Ravi Shankar. (2011) “Dr. B. R. Ambedkar’s Role in Revival of Buddhism and It’s Impact on Socio-Economic Development of Ignored Humanity in India”, Buddhist Virtues in Socio-Economic Development. Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Press, 151-152.
full-time higher education, and they would have to earn and learn. Thus, because Ambedkar supported the socialistic society, so
did not want to confine socialism only to economic reform. He
says, “If liberty is the ideal, if liberty means the destruction of the dominion, which one man holds over another, then obviously, it cannot be insisted upon that economic reform only. If the source of power and dominion is, at any given time or in any given society, social and religious, then social reform and religious reforms must be accepted as the necessary sort of reform.”152
4. The social change effects in India through Ambadkar’s conversion
- Social Communities with modern ideologies
The Buddhist revivalism involved in engagement with the new is increasingly evident that much of the Buddhist contribution to new forms of urban civic organization and social activism, print and mass media culture, social-cultural identities and forms of expression, and broader discursive and political formations came from those in the new lay associations.
Elite laymen were at the forefront of Buddhist educational, social welfare, philanthropic, and print-media projects. Representing a new means of assembling and mobilizing urban elites for social action and, in many cases, successfully negotiating with state authorities, the lay associations, many termed householder groves, forged connections with one another across regions and throughout the nation as well as vertical linkages between coreligionists of different socioeconomic and educational backgrounds. At the heart of this was a project of social-community formation
Therefore, the lay Buddhist elite and their associations rose to become among the most formidable forces of Indian civic
- Singh, Ravi Shankar. (2011) “Dr. B. R. Ambedkar’s Role in Revival of Buddhism and It’s Impact on Socio-Economic Development of Ignored Humanity in India”, Buddhist Virtues in Socio-Economic Development. Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Press, 152.
leadership. Accounting for the social meaning invested by modern elites into this consequential project of Buddhist activism alters the historical image of India. These urban-based Buddhist associations and communities, moreover, further constituted themselves and extended their reach through participation in wider webs of Buddhist networks linking clerics and laity of many sorts throughout the country. Many lay Buddhist activists in urban centers were to make themselves relevant as Buddhists to a time and place infused with the aura of a dawning new age of the modern. This was closely related to their communal attempts to establish a legitimate social position and extend their influence.
There was a group of modernist Buddhists, reformist followers interested in advancing gender equality through new education for nuns and the socially and politically radical figures, devoted to building a Indian Buddhism aligned with modernity. Much has been made of the contention between conservatives and reformers. However, it is increasingly clear that both sides innovated and adapted a range of positions from which to engage the major discourses that took on such importance in an age of dramatic political, cultural, and social change. Activist houser, moreover, early on made a point of linking their progressive religious reformism with support for the project of national awakening has provided the greatest insight into Buddhist figures whose quest for ethical and spiritual revival in an era of nationalism.
4.2 Recovering and Buddhist revivalism in India
This project to “recover Buddhist India” in the modern era is, in part, an attempt to counter the historiographical obscuration and marginalization of Buddhists and Buddhism in the dominant historical narratives of history. Ambadkar had put it, religion to the center of modern Indian history. Yet, while asserting Buddhist significance, pervasiveness, and influence, much of which is most clearly evident in particular elite-articulated forms. Indeed, the more we open our eyes to the range of different kinds of Buddhism and Buddhists that proliferated, the more the Buddhist social- cultural historical presence becomes visible.
Appreciating the social-historical context is vital to this; however, it also means paying close attention to the particular religious cultural resources and forms adopted and situated at the center of many Buddhist lives. There is often a wariness accompanied by diffident expressions of analytical distance concerned to avoid taking religious claims at face value or, worse, becoming apologists for religious agendas. Yet overly sterile assessments of religious valuing risk present just another variation in common social meanings, the undifferentiated effect of which rings hollow.
Directed at core ethical principles, personal transformation and spiritual renewal, transcendence and the metaphysical, and matters of life and death, such interactions were often invested with a deep abiding existential meaning not easily dislodged. This is not reducible to the concept of faith, though the range of Buddhists and non-Buddhists, including many with elite, secular modern educations, who believed in karma, supernatural phenomena or whose conversions to Buddhism hinged on the perception of a spiritual experience is striking.
The twentieth century is well known for the rising discourses of secularism. However, in India, as in many parts of the world, it was also an age of much instability, chaos, mass destruction, and violence that led many to seek deeper meanings within themselves, in past traditions of wisdom, and beyond surface realities. We might better recognize this Buddhist pursuit of meaning as a powerful orientation that was widely recognized, trusted, and associated with authenticity in the eyes of those inside and outside their communities and that also, albeit along with other parallel motivations, repeatedly spurred Buddhists to social action. Much remains to be done to test and examine variations of this evidence, but there are many indications that we have only begun to appreciate the cultural dynamism of Buddhism in India’s modern history and its continuing relevance today as a rich source of social, political, and cultural creativity.
Buddhism was a coherent entity, a deeply historically and socially integrated array of conceptual, institutional, and customary cultural resources. Out of the voluminous Buddhist textual sources of scriptures, chants, and ritual texts came sophisticated philosophical forms of rhetoric, logic, dialectics, metaphysics, ethics, and theories of universalism and transcendence. Flowing not just from texts but also through artistic and dramatic expression and ritual practice were the Buddhist concepts of cosmic cycles, karmic cause and effect, reincarnation, and salvation. Similarly widely circulated were images and narratives of supernatural beings—Buddhas, arhats, bodhisattvas, asuras, and so forth— most of whom were popularly thought of as gods and their spiritual realms, notably the Pure Land and the Buddhist hells. Much of Buddhism was experienced through ritual practices of recitation, self-cultivation, and vegetarianism and known through a panoply of rites, especially of repentance, protection, and the “white rites” for the dead.
The contributors maintained that what has often been gathered under the label “Buddhist revival” constituted a single, coherent movement, let alone representative of all that was significant about Buddhism in the modern era. Revivalist projects of clerics and laity largely because the social, cultural, and political dynamism evident therein has long been ignored. A remarkable number of prominent monks and lay devotees began to appear, who led and inspired reforms of Buddhism, new religious enthusiasm, and engagement with society and politics.
Impelled and influenced by models of modern religion, some of the Buddhist revivalists were among the most successful religious leaders in establishing organizations, structures, and self- definitions of organized religion in negotiation with government authorities. Moreover, it thus succeeded in rendering Buddhism the Indian religion most legible to the modern state. This Buddhist activism was unquestionably central to the religious boom and the conceptual and organizational transformative fashioning of a prominent public Buddhism, in part negotiated with an emerging modern state incipiently seeking to reorder society. In the course of making new forms and places for themselves as Buddhists in an emerging modern Indian society.
5. Conclusion
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, throughout his life, gave Buddhism a positive and constructive dimension in the form of all sorts of programmes, actions and services that helped empower the downtrodden and took society to the stage of higher social welfare. This is the essence of Indian Engaged Buddhism. This is what the Buddha meant by it would be imperative for the Buddhists to undertake all such charitable and constructive activities that would enhance their welfare. To accomplish this goal, they must organize and unite. They must eliminate shallow and sectarian considerations and overcome egoism. Without Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, the revival of Buddhism and practical social change effects in India would be possible.
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References
- Ambedkar, R. (1997) The Buddha and His Dhamma.
Napur, Buddha Bhoomi Publication.
- Ahir, C. (1972) Buddhism in Modern India. Bhikkhu
Nivas Prakashan, Nagpur.
- Beteille, (1992) The Backward Classes in Contemporary India, Delhi: Oxford University Press.
- Burton, (2004) Buddhism, Knowledge, and Liberation: A Philosophical Analysis of Suffering. England, Burlington.
- Chang, Garma C.C., ed. (1991) A Treasury of Mahāyāna Sūtras: Selections From the Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra. Delhi, Motilal
- Das, B. (1998) Revival of Buddhism in India and Role of Baba Saheb B. R. Ambedkar, Dalit Today Prakshan, Lucknow.
- Gombrich, (2006) Theravada Buddhism. London,
Rout- ledge.
- Government of (1991) Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar: Writings and Speeches, Vol.1, Education Department.
- Mendelsohn, Marika Vicziany. (2000) The Untouchables Subordination, Poverty and the State in Modern India, Cambridge University
- Mungekar, L.ed. (2009) Buddhism and the 21st Century, the Com- memoration volume of the 255th Anniversary of the Mahanirvana of Lord Buddha, Nava Nalanda Mahavihara.
- Mungekar, L. & Rathore Akash Singh, ed. (2007) Buddhism and the Contemporary World: An Ambedkarian Perspective, Dr. Ambedkar Institute of Social and Economic change.
- Sherwood, Patricia. (2001) Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 8, Edith Cowan University.
- Singh, Ravi (2011) “Dr. B. R. Ambedkar’s Role in Revival of Buddhism and It’s Impact on Socio- Economic Development of Ignored Humanity in India”, Buddhist Virtues in Socio-Economic Development. Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Press.
Biographical notes on Ven. Thich Thanh Tam
Ven. Thich Thanh Tam is Vietnamese born in 1979; became a Buddhist monk in 1992. He earned a BA in Buddhist studies in 2002; a BA in International Studies in 2011; an MA in International Studies in 2013, and PhD. in International Studies in 2018 from University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnamese National University.
His current research includes the happiness and well-being policy of Bhutan, Tibet, China and India. He has written some books on Buddhism and published several scholarly articles related to Bhutanese culture and policy. This includes articles illustrating the connection between Mahāyāna Buddhism and Gross National Happiness. He also contributed many research papers on the Vietnam Buddhist Sangha’s International Relations; he delivered lectures on Buddhism to spread the light of Buddha’s Zen and Pure Land message. He has participated in cooperative research projects on modern Buddhism and the circulations of religious ideas. He is mainly interested in contemporary religion using sociological and international relations methods to promote sustainable development of the society of Vietnam.
Now, he is a standing member of the Central Dhamma Executive Council of the Vietnam Buddhist Sangha; A standing member of the Vietnam Buddhist Research Institute; Vice Director of the Center for Buddhist Studies and Translation of Vietnam Buddhist Research Institute; and abbot of Thieu Long temple in Da Nang city.
Tell: 084.0936054054. E-mail: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
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A CR_ITICAL INTERPRETATION OF NIBBANA FROM DR. AMBEDKAR’S PERSPECTIVE IN INDIAN ENGAGED BUDDHIST MOVEMENT
By Ven. Dong Dac (Phan Anh Duoc)
Lucknow University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
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ndian jurist, economist, politician, and social reformer Babasaheb Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, also known by
his nickname, Babasaheb, was the driving force behind the Dalit Buddhist movement and the leader of the effort to end societal discrimination against the Untouchables. In addition, Ambedkar was a strong supporter of women’s and workers’ rights. He was India’s first law minister after the country gained its independence and the principal author of the country’s constitution. He was also a member of the Constituent Assembly.153
Moreover, Dr. Ambedkar is credited for establishing Navayana in India. Navayana, which literally translates to ‘new vehicle’, is the concept that a Buddhist movement might potentially constitute a new year or the main Buddhism branch. In addition, the historically acknowledged branches of Buddhist tradition such as Theravada, Mahāyāna , and Vajrayana. Navayana is also known
- Bryant, Edwin; “The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture”; Press of Oxford University, 2001; 50-51.
as a “new vehicle.” This state was asserted for the Buddhist Dalit movement and the movement itself. In support of this concept, Dr.
Ambedkar argues that
“I commit to embracing and acting in accordance with Buddha’s teachings. I shall shield my people from the divergent perspectives of Mahāyāna and Hinyana, which are two separate religious groups. Our Bouddha Dhamma is a new Bouddha Dhamma, Navayana”154
“The Buddha and His Dhamma,” authored by Dr. Ambedkar, was thought of and published to serve as a type of Buddhist scripture pertaining to the Untouchables who converted to Buddhism.
Dr. Ambedkar challenges the conventional Buddhist view that individuals are solely responsible for their suffering in his book “The Buddha and His Dhamma.” In its place, he focuses more on eradicating the social, political, and economic factors contributing to the Untouchables’ misery. The primary causes of suffering are not mental attachments but social exploitation and material deprivation in one’s environment. In addition, Dr. Ambedkar disagrees with the conventional interpretation of enlightenment and offers an alternative interpretation. It is an improvement both in terms of one’s material circumstances and one’s social interactions in this life.
When we reframe the aim such that it goes beyond simple reform and into the realm of radical transformation, we have arrived at the most extreme point on the spectrum. As we have seen, Dr. Ambedkar goes beyond others in rejecting tradition by rejecting the conventional interpretation in the context of the Four Noble Truths as pointing the finger at the victim. This is one of the ways in which he distinguishes himself from his peers.
The Eightfold Noble Way, in Dr. Ambedkar’s view, is not a means of reaching liberation or Nirvana, but rather the method “to
- Babasaheb Ambedkar, take interview given to the press on October 13, 1956, at the Sham Hotel in Nagpur. eradicate justice and inhumanity that man does to a man.”155
In the First Sermon, recognized formulations of the First and Fourth Noble Truths may be found as components; however, the Second Noble and Third Noble Truths have been mistakenly misinterpreted as societal teachings. The First and Fourth Noble Truths can be found in the First Sermon. According to Dr. Babasahed Ambedkar, the source of pain is the “blows and wounds, contention, dispute, and retorts; quarrelling, slander and falsehoods” that result from the violence associated with class struggle.156
Regarding Nirvana defined by Dr. Ambedkar speaks of a “kingdom of justice on earth,” and he characterizes the enlightenment of Buddhas should not be interpreted as the realization of the cosmic potential of a single person but rather as a simple recognition of the struggle of others.
“The light finally broke through to him on the evening of the final day of the fourth week. It dawned on him that there were actually two issues. The fact that there was a pain in the world was the first challenge, and the second challenge was figuring out how to end that suffering and provide happiness to all people.”157
It was brought to our attention that Dr. Ambedkar gives not only the conventional realities of samudaya (the beginning of pain) and nirodha (the end of suffering) but also stories of nirvana and parinirva in other parts of “The Buddha and His Dhamma”:
“According to this interpretation of the Buddha, what causes unhappiness in man is his capitulation to his desires. These attachments are referred to as fetters, and they are what stop a man from arriving at the state of Nibbana. The path to a man’s happiness opens up for him the minute he is able to break free from the control that his desires have over him—that is, the moment he realizes how to obtain Nibbana.”
- Ambedkar; “the Buddha and His Dhamma”; p.83
156 Ibid; p. 168.
157 B.R. Ambedkar; “the Buddha and His Dhamma”; p.55.
And once more: “According to the Udana, Parinibbana takes place when the body disintegrates, all perceptions come to a halt, all feelings pass away, the activities come to an end, and awareness vanishes. Thus, the meaning of Parinibbna is total oblivion. There is no way that Nibbana could ever have this meaning. Nibbana refers to exercising sufficient self-control over one’s passions in order to be able to go along the path of virtue.”158
In an apparent reversal of the customary order, the absence of emotions is considered a condition for righteousness, as if the conventional formula third truth only briefly leads to the fourth truth. This view contradicts the traditional order in several ways. As a direct consequence, it is abundantly obvious that the focus has shifted to living a social morality; the extinction of one’s passions is regarded as a prerequisite for righteous behavior.
In Peter Berger’s view, Ambedkar was an epic example of what it means to embody the contemporary spirit. Ambedkar is credited with having been the spark that ignited what is considered to be the most significant mass religious conversion in the 20th century. He did this by consciously selecting a religious faith from among the conflicting traditions in a society rich in pluralism. Ambedkar’s heretical search followed a technique that involved publicly exposing the issue of religious choice and then methodically examining it. This method serves to highlight both Berger’s model of contemporary consciousness as well as Ambedkar’s personal style.
However, the Buddhism that may be found in Ambedkar’s more mature writings has proven to be problematic for both conventional Buddhists and scholarly critics. What are we to make of the historian’s claim that the Untouchables of India are the descendants of ancient Buddhists, descended from India’s original, pre-Aryan inhabitants? How can those who follow Buddhism and students of the religion embrace his Great Going Forth history or Four Noble Truths rejection, the concepts of karma and reincarnation, and the role of the Bhikkhu as one who engages in contemplation?
158 Ibid; pp. 166-167.
Is the form of Buddhism expounded upon in the seminal book of Ambedkar: ‘The Buddha and His Dharma’, Buddhism in any way, or should it be referred to as ‘Ambedkarism’, as a number of people did at the time? Also, because this book serves as a substitute for the Bible for the millions of people who have recently converted to Buddhism due to Babasaheb’s teachings, can we regard them as genuine Buddhists?
Some observers have sought to put a positive spin on it, even though they believe Ambedkar’s Buddhism has undergone a significant transformation in both its spirit and emphasis. Joanna Macy writes, “The converts’ background, as Untouchables in a caste society, colors their views of the faith they espouse.” This “casts into bold relief the social teachings of the Dhamma and those interpretations of the Buddhist past that speak to their need for self-respect,”.159 Richard W. Taylor draws parallels between
- R. Ambedkar’s compilation ‘The Buddha and His Dhamma’ and his contributions to the work of the Constitution of India, which included aspects of legal precedent from the United States, and also the United Kingdom and India. Ambedkar “has selected what seemed to him to be the most significant elements of many Buddhist traditions, modified them, sometimes radically, added material of his own, and placed them in an order” within the context of the book. In the same way that the Constitution has evolved into something much more than just a paper, so too has this. This canon is at the center of the new Buddhists’ religious practice in the same way that the Constitution is at the center of the nation’s political existence.160
Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan, a renowned English-Hindi translator of The Buddha and His Dhamma who double-researched Pali references, found Ambedkar’s portrayal is a “new orientation,
- Joanna Rogers, Macy, and Eleanor “Tradition and Innovation in Contemporary Indian Buddhism,” in A. K. Narain, edited Studies in the History of Buddhism; in Delhi by B. R. Publishing Corp; 1980, p.134.
- Richard Taylor, “The Ambedkarite Buddhists”; in Wilkinson and Thomas; p. 146.
but not a distortion” of Buddhism. Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan adapted the original English version of The Buddha and His Dhamma into Hindi are present in Ambedkar’s work. This is perhaps the most significant finding made by the scholar.161
Even if it is impossible to evaluate Kausalyayan’s thesis in great detail in this context, we can nevertheless examine it in relation to the Four Truths as envisioned by Ambedkar, which all reports agree are primary teaching in the Pali texts. Ambedkar interpreted the Four Noble Truths. Ambedkar argues in the prologue of his book that the formula ‘cuts Buddhism’s roots’, that it is a significant obstacle to non-Buddhists accepting Buddhism’, that it ‘denies man hope’, and that it is, therefore, an example of a revision made by monks after the Buddha’s teachings were compiled and codified.
Ambedkar’s paraphrase of the opening portion of the Dhammachakkappavattana Sutta, which deals with the middle way, is found following the original in the book’s chapters labeled ‘The Buddha’s First Discourse’.When the five pilgrims pressed for the meat and potatoes of the Buddha’s teaching, he began by claiming that his method, which is his religion but has nothing to do with God or the soul, is called Dhamma. This is the beginning of the suttas. His Dhamma did not address the topic of life after death in any way. Nor does his Dhamma have any interest in rites and ceremonies of any kind. Human beings and their interactions with one another in the context of his existence on earth are at the core of his Dhamma. According to what he stated, this was his initial premise. His second hypothesis was that people live their lives in a state of unhappiness, wretchedness, and destitution. The sole objective of the Dhamma is to teach how to alleviate the suffering that exists in the world, which is a recognition that the world is fraught with affliction.
The Parivrajakas then confronted him with the following question: “Since the foundation of your Dhamma is the acknowledgment of the existence of suffering and the eradication
161 Macy, Ibid; pp.134-135.
of suffering, tell us how your Dhamma removes suffering!” The Buddha then explained to them that according to his Dhamma, the end of all suffering would be brought about if everyone followed the Purity’s Way, the Righteousness’s Road, and the Virtue’s Path. This was the Buddha’s explanation.162
In the following sections, the Buddhist tradition teaching on Five Precepts, the Eightfold Path, and the ten traditional paramis, also known as “perfections,” is used to describe the Purity Path, the Righteousness Path, and the Virtue Path, respectively. The Path of Virtue also includes the four brahmaviharas, also known as “blessed abodes.” Besides these irrational interpolations, handling various other objects also comes as a surprise. Instead of “mere concentration,” which results in self-induced Dhyanic experiences and keeps the five hindrances in suspense, is known as Right concentration (Sammā Samādhi), which is defined as the “habit of mind to think of good...and the necessary motive power to do good.” The Eightfold Path has reached its eighth and final stage.
The interpretation of forgetting about using the Eightfold Path to finally achieve enlightenment (nirvana), rather as the means “to eradicate injustice and inhumanity that man causes to man.” Maitri (“loving-kindness”) “means fellowship not merely with human beings but with all living beings,” and prajna (“wisdom”) is known to be the “understanding and intelligence” that inspires and justifies all good deeds. Dana (“generosity”) and karuna (“compassion”) have a focus on the “suffering of the needy and the poor.”163
Thus, it is clear that the second and third of the Four Noble Truths, the First and fourth, Suffering and the Path, emerge in recognisable formulations as aspects in the first sermon, while Arising (from mental craving or tanha) and also the Cessation (in enlightenment or Nirvana) are given a new meaning by society in the form of its teachings. The first and the fourth, Suffering
162 B. R. Ambedkar; “The Buddha and His Dhamma”; was Third Edition; at Siddharth Publications; in Bombay; 1984, p. 83.
163 Ibid; pp. 88-90.
and the Path, may be traced back to identifiable statements in the introductory speech. If one wishes to discover more commentary on these teachings, one must search in other parts of “The Buddha and His Dhamma.”After learning that a bloody feud between the neighboring Sakya and Koliya clans had finally been resolved, Gautama, in Ambedkar’s rendition, comments on the origin of pain by saying, “The war between countries is sporadic. Nonetheless, the fight between socioeconomic classes is ongoing and unending. It is this that lies at the heart of all of the misery and suffering that exists in the world.”164
In another passage, the Buddha discusses desire, which is traditionally understood to be the root of all unhappiness. But, he “quickly ties it to the brutality of class warfare, blows and wounds, contention, dispute, and retorts; quarreling, slander and falsehoods.”165
Rather than seeing the Buddha’s enlightenment as the fulfillment of his or her own cosmic potential, Ambedkar presents it as a simple realization of the struggle of others: “He was bathed in illumination on the evening of the seventh day of the fourth week. He realized there were two problems. The fact that people are in pain was the first issue, and figuring out how to end that pain and make everyone happy was the second.” 166
Even supportive reviewers have expressed concern with this significantly reduced interpretation of the primary epiphany of Buddhism. Macy believes that “the shock to a traditional Buddhist of reading such a depiction of the enlightenment, with its absence of a sense of tremendous transformation or transcending insight into the essence of reality, typifies the flaws inherent in Ambedkar’s Turning of the Law.”167
164 Ibid., p. 45.
165 Ibid., pp. 168-169.
166 Ibid., p. 55.
- Macy, Joanna Rogers, and author named Eleanor Zelliot. “Tradition and Innovation in Contemporary Indian Buddhism”; in another author A. K. Narain; by edited; “Studies in the History of Buddhism”; and R. Publishing
Taylor comes to the conclusion that “suffering is still central to the insight of the enlightenment,” but that it is a far weaker knowledge, and in fact a weaker suffering, than that which is normally given by the four Truths, eventually to individuals who do not themselves have a meaningful comprehension of the aspects that extend beyond the empiricalthose truths. Despite this, Taylor concludes that “suffering is still central to the insight of the enlightenment.” The exclusion of the second and third truths results in “something akin to an emasculation” of the Buddha Dharma, which suffers because of this omission.”168
We made the observation that Ambedkar gives both the traditional facts of arising of pain (samudaya)and then sees on cessation of pain and suffering(nirodha) in other parts of The Buddha and His Dhamma, in addition to tales of Nirvana and Parinirvana.
“What leads to unhappiness in man is his capitulation to his appetites and desires. These attachments are known as fetters, and they are what stand in the way of a man arriving at the state of Nibbana. The path to pleasure is available to man the instant that he is liberated from the control that his desires have over him, or when he realizes how to attain Nibbana.
And once more, according to the Udana, parinibbana takes place when the body disintegrates, all perceptions cease, all sensations pass away, the activities come to an end, and consciousness disappears. This is not the meaning of Nirvana.; instead, Nirvana refers to “sufficient control over passion so that one is able to travel on the road of righteousness.” Thus, Parinibbana denotes “total annihilation.” Nibbana can never have this meaning.”169
Corp; at Delhi University; 1980, p.142.
- Taylor Richard; “The Ambedkarite Buddhists”; in S. Wilkinson and
- M. Thomas; “Ambedkar and the Neo-Buddhist Movement”; in Christian Literature Society; at Madras; 1972, pp.159-160.
169 Ibid., pp. 166-167.
It’s as though the classic formula’s third fact (cessation) somehow temporally and causally leads to the fourth truth (the road); the traditional order is reversed here; the cessation of Having control over one’s emotions is essential for doing what’s right. This shifts the emphasis back to ethical life in society.
Why does Ambedkar deny the reality of the Four Noble Truths in their canonical presentation? This has led many academics and orthodox Buddhists to the conclusion that he has either abandoned or misrepresented the Dhamma.
Ambedkar’s redefinition of Buddhist liberation, and the answer to this question, can be found in the hermeneutical tenets which form the basis of ‘The Buddha and His Dhamma’ and other works by Ambedkar that touch on Buddhism. And perhaps even more importantly, the answer is contingent on one’s appreciation of the crucial role that hermeneutic shifts have played in the development of Buddhism itself.
The most important part of “The Buddha and His Dhamma”, which addresses the issue of how the Dhamma is passed down from teacher to student and how it is so often misunderstood, is cited by the vast majority of commentators who have written about the book. As a result of the vastness of the Buddha’s teachings and the need for oral transmission, the burden of the argument is that there was unintended misreporting of the Buddha-saying or true Buddha-vacana, as admitted in five suttas. This is the main point of the argument. As a result, it is essential in our day and age to use specific criteria for determining the authenticity of the scriptures. There are three of these in total:
“If there is anything that can be asserted with absolute certainty, it is that I, the Buddha, was nothing if not reasonable and nothing if not logical. In light of this, whatever can be shown to be rational and logical, all other constant factors can be considered to be the teachings of the Buddha.
The second factor is that the Buddha never bothered to
participate in a conversation that would not be beneficial to the general well-being of people. Because of this, anything that is said to have been said by the Buddha but does not relate to the well- being of man cannot be considered to be the words of the Buddha.
There will be a third examination. It is because the Buddha separated everything into two categories. Those things that he knew for sure, and those things that he didn’t know for sure, respectively. Regarding the topics that were classified as I, he has given a precise and conclusive statement of his position. He has expressed his views on subjects that were classified as class II, although they can only be considered provisional at this point.”170
The conventional and additional material that Ambedkar reworks are evaluated according to these three criteria: reason, social benefit, and certainty. In addition, they might be considered the immediate solution to pressing issues about including elements and their placement.
However, these standards ought to permeate the sensibilities and necessities of the people from whom Ambedkar and Buddhism sprang. More specifically, these criteria must be transparent to the Mahars of Maharashtra. More generally, these criteria must be transparent to the Untouchables of India. And ultimately, these criteria must open your doors to the underprivileged of all eras. This indicates that the reason, social value, and certainty of the Buddha Dhamma must first and foremost be understandable to these individuals for it to be relevant to their lives. This is the conclusive response to questions regarding inclusion and arrangement, and it also serves as the guiding hermeneutic premise for Ambedkar’s Dhamma.
Ambedkar anticipated the backlash against the Four Truths’ customary presentation, which holds victims responsible for their misfortune, would be distasteful and inadmissible to individuals whose pain was brought on by the callousness of others and a heartless societal structure. He realized that the metaphysics of karma and rebirth exacerbated feelings of self-blame by suggesting
170 Ibid., pp. 254-255.
that suffering people had committed wrongdoing in previous lives. In addition, he was aware that the conventional bhikkhu lifestyle of voluntarily living in poverty and engaging in contemplative activities was not an option for people trapped in structural poverty. And he did so in response to the need for an enlightening historical construction that could elucidate the historical context of phenomena such as the Untouchables, the decline of Buddhism, and the preponderance of caste Hinduism in modern times.
“What exactly are the lessons that Buddha imparted?”Ambedkar takes asked. He said that neither devotees of the Buddha nor students of Buddhism could agree with one another. Some people point to samadhi, others to vipassana, and others to metaphysics, mysticism, or abstractions from the outside world. Yet, the most important issue that the Untouchables wanted to answer was, “Did the Buddha Have a Social Message?” Did he instill values such as justice, love, liberty, equality, and brotherhood among his students? Would the Buddha be able to respond to Karl Marx? Ambedkar observed that these kinds of problems are hardly ever brought up while talking about Buddha’s Dhamma. “The explanation that I have is that the Buddha was trying to convey a social message. He responds to each of these questions. But those ideas have been largely forgotten thanks to recent writers.”171 Robert Thurman’s influential Buddhist hermeneutics study in 1978. According to Thurman, it is possible to grasp Shakyamuni’s inventiveness as a teacher and, by extension, the relevance of hermeneutics in Buddhism: “who sought to encourage the individual disciple’s ability to think for himself,” and his “affirmation of empiricism, a rational acknowledgment of the fact that reality, even ordinary reality, is never, in the final analysis, a pure reflection of itself.” Hermeneutics is defined as “a philosophical discipline of rational interpretation of a traditional canon “. 172
From the period of the religion from its Tibetan commentator’s
171 Ibid., pp. 158-159.
- Robert F. Thurman; “Buddhist Hermeneutics”; in The Journal of the American Academy of Religion, vol. 46; no. 1; 1978, p. 19.
founding Tsongkhapa (14th-15th centuries), he analyses the evolution of Buddhist hermeneutic techniques. Thurman provides illustrative examples of the history of Buddhist philosophers’ internal changes, innovations, and emphasis shifts. He does this by tracing the interpretive methods dating back to the founder’s era of the religion to those of Tsongkhapa.
In more modern times, Ronald Davidson has proposed the idea that in the Buddhist tradition, criteria for determining the validity of text were gradually recast from the beginning to meet the constantly shifting conditions faced by the Sangha. Davidson made this assertion in one of his books. According to what he has said, “From the very beginning, there were formal circumstances in the transmission of the Buddhist dispensation which virtually ensured that the early Samgha would modify the exact content of the sayings of the Buddha.”173
The belief that “Beyond what could be said by the Buddha, the dharma gleaned from the teachings of enlightened followers (sravakas); tradition’s stress on orthopraxy rather than orthodoxy; the belief that the dharma only has one flavor, the flavor of liberation; the requirement that one verifies the reality of the dharma for oneself by study and practice; an emphasis on an individual’s responsibility to verify the truth of the dharma; and an emphasis on an individual’s.”174
One strikingly modern example of these patterns is Ambedkar’s Buddhist hermeneutics emancipation, which can be considered as an illustration of these patterns. Ambedkar, like Nagarjuna, like Aryadeva to Asanga, and like Chih I to Candrakirti, and like Fa Tsang, and also like the Ch’an Master Pai Chang, offered a new interpretation of the Dhamma appropriate for the time in which he
- Ronald M. Davidson; a topic on “An Introduction to the Standards of Scriptural Authenticity in Indian Buddhism’; in Robert E. Buswell, Jr.; edited by Chinese Buddhist Apocrypha, at University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1990, 292.
174 Ibid; pp. 292-294.
lived. Thurman demonstrates that these individuals rethought and reinvented fundamental aspects of Buddhist doctrine. His use of idioms in English and his use of non-Buddhist (Western) critical research to reconstruct Buddhist history and ideas, his novel technique for classifying and presenting Pali source materials, his freedom from sectarian inflections, and his assumption of interpretive license when it comes to the Buddha’s own words all lend credence to this claim. All contribute to his unique voice and thought forms in writing about Buddhism.
Throughout the history of Buddhism, significant paradigm shifts have generally been accompanied by declarations that contradict or water down the original teaching. For instance, one of the most well-known expressions of the philosophical and religious shifts that we refer to as the Mahāyāna tradition in Buddhism can be contained in the final verses of the Heart Sūtra, “There is no suffering, no origin, no cessation, no path, no exalted wisdom, no attainment, and also there is no non-attainment.” At the level of the conventions, it is difficult to conceive of a more severe rejection of the Four Noble Truths, the entirety of Buddhist faith and practice. The Sūtra’s direct portrayal of the primary teaching of the Mahāyāna school, which is the “emptiness” of forms concept, indicates an equally radical shift Buddha’s first sermon was notable for its calm tone and call to action.
In contrast, It is possible to see Ambedkar’s claim that class conflict, which in turn is produced by human passions, is a new interpretation of but hardly a radical departure from the Buddha’s canonical teachings. Ambedkar believed that human suffering is produced by human desires. To provide support for his interpretation, the author makes use of well-known social teachings as well as archetypal actions performed by the Buddha. The early dedication of the tradition, for example, to resolving the gender and caste gap in the Sangha is detailed in length in The Buddha and His Dhamma. According to ancient historians, this early commitment is widely regarded as a major turning point. According to the Pali sources, the Buddha converted many different types of people,
including parivrajakas (mendicants), women like Mahaprajapati and Ananda, and the socially and economically disadvantaged such as Ambedkar’s day equivalents of the barber and the sweeper were Upali and Sunita.
In a nutshell, the Buddhism found in Ambedkar’s later writings is a reinterpretation of principles at the heart of classical Buddhism. Among these is the realization that people experience pain, the belief that this pain may be alleviated through introspection and kindness, and the anticipation of an emancipated society based on justice and opportunity for all. Ambedkar recognized It was suffering and its cure that Gautama centered his teachings on. Because he, too, had experienced the sorrow and misery of the disinherited firsthand. On the other hand, he integrated the modern value of critical reason acquired via education and research with the ancient value of spiritual wisdom, meditation, and mindfulness. In addition, he brought the classical virtues of kindness, moral ambition, and deft action into the struggle for social justice.
It is possible to say that “turning the wheel,” a metaphor used by early Buddhists to spread the Dharma, is the same thing as “changing the wheel,” because each round gives a new “angle” on the truth. The teachings of Buddhism, much like old cartwheels, have been used, repaired, and modified over many centuries; some of these teachings have even been swapped out for the rubber tires of modern automobiles. Yet, the function continues to be to transport passengers to the location of their choice. It is possible to recognize the spokes and axles of a specific new vehicle if one compiles the most well-known teachings of Ambedkar and places them within the context of the traditional framework of the Four Noble Truths.175
Ambedkar believed that this age’s first noble truth is that injustice and poverty cause untold misery. The second reality was that oppression exists in the form of social, political, and cultural
- Since its inception, the term Navayana, or “new vehicle,” has been proposed to describe Ambedkar’s new Buddhist philosophy.
structures that are the sum of individual acts of avarice, bigotry, and ignorance. The third fact was embodied by the European principles of “liberty, equality, and fraternity,” and the fourth truth was the triple road of Ambedkar’s well-known slogan, “Hinduism: The Path to Freedom”; “Educate! Agitate! Organize!”
Ambedkar endeavored to transcend beyond the limiting concentration on the individual and social aspects of Buddhist liberation; he sought to explain early Buddhism’s emphasis on psychology and moral striving. However, he worried that people might misinterpret his stance as a demand for more political and social engagement at the expense of the individual or as a strident appeal for improved material conditions without corresponding gains in self-respect and faith in one’s ability to shape one’s future. That is to say; he was cautious about how his comments might be interpreted, lest it is seen that he was supporting political and social engagement at the expense of the individual. Years before he openly committed to Buddhism, in 1942 at an address to 70,000 people at the All-India Depressed Classes Conference, Ambedkar attempted to refute the criticism that his movement was really warmed-over socialism by saying the following:
“This is the last piece of advice I have for you: educate, agitate, organize, and most importantly, have believed in yourself. When we have the law on our side, I do not see how we could ever lose this fight. I take great pleasure in the conflict that we are engaged in. Our fight is, in every sense of the word, a spiritual one. There is nothing in it that can be considered material or social. Because the struggle that we are engaged in is not one for money or power. This is a fight for our independence. It is a struggle for the restoration of human individuality.”176
To sum up, Ambedkar’s “battle for freedom,” sometimes “a matter of joy,” was a painful struggle that ultimately permeated
- Dalai Lama, Compassion, Discernment, and Wisdom, Snow Lion, edited by John Hopkins and Elizabeth Napper, Ithaca 1984, pages 46–47, 60–
every aspect of human existence, from the personal (on the level of emotions and ideas) to the national (the struggle for swaraj and constitutional democracy in India) to the international (the fight for swaraj and religious freedom around the world), many issues have arisen. Ambedkar was a multifaceted thinker with extensive education in the arts and social sciences prevalent during his period. He brought his quest for a place to worship that lasted twenty-one years to a successful conclusion when he included all of these in his reinterpretation of Buddhism.
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AMBEDKAR AND THE BUDDHIST REVIVAL MOVEMENT IN INDIA
Researcher Thich Nu Thanh Nha
Department of Anthropology- Andhra University
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Abstract
uddhism was founded in the 6th century BC in India. After attaining enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, the
Buddha preached the Dharma to the first five disciples at Deer Park. Since then, the Triple Gems were formed, including the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. The Buddha and his early disciples went everywhere to spread the Dharma. Since then, a new wind has been blown into Indian society, bringing the flavors of compassion, wisdom, and liberation. After its establishment, Buddhism has made great strides in development and significantly impacted Indian society. However, by the 14th century, this religion lost its influence and gradually disappeared except in the border areas bordering Nepal and Tibet. The question here is why is this happening in India. Of course, it includes both subjective and objective causes that we need to clarify. For Indian society, the resurrection of Buddhism has a significant meaning and function. Ambedkar, a well-known political figure and social reformer, has greatly aided the revival of Buddhism. For him, the resurrection and advancement of Buddhism are crucial for reestablishing social order in the direction of equality and human rights. As a result, the writer will discuss the life of Ambedkar and his contribution to the resurgence of Buddhism in India in this essay.
Keywords: Indian Buddhism, Decline of Buddhism, Bhimrao
Ramji Ambedkar, Revival movement of Buddhism
Introduction
India is a multicultural and multireligious nation. Before Buddhism was founded, there existed many religions, especially Hinduism. This religion has strict rules about caste division in society. In the 6th century BC, Buddhism appeared as a current of ideas entering Indian life. The Buddha always knew that to reduce caste division gradually, the Sangha must be the first object in spreading the spirit of equality and non-violence.
After Buddhism was spread worldwide, this religion also followed the historical flow of each country that has its development ups and downs or flourishes. Buddhism was founded in India, but that does not mean it will develop continuously, not decline. In India in the 14th century, Buddhism rapidly vanished due to both subjective and objective factors. At this time, Indian society needed a person to initiate the Buddhist movement for social commitment to realize the purpose of two goals. First, bring Buddhism back to its original location. The second is to carry out a democratic, nonviolent revolution in a peaceful manner. Ambedkar did it, and he was the one who launched a powerful Buddhist revival movement in India.
Ambedkar’s efforts in the Buddhist revival movement in India have yielded many good results. He succeeded in changing his thinking to persuade others to change his opinion of society, creating a revolution in thought among the masses. That was one factor that contributed to Buddhism’s revival in India.
Content
One of the prominent political activists in India, Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, is known for playing a pivotal role in shaping the Indian constitution. Every work in his life proves his radical view on the issue of class division, especially the Untouchables.
The Life and Career of B.R. Ambedkar
- Biography of B.R. Ambedkar
BR Ambedkar was born on April 14, 1891, in Mahu in Central India. He was born into the Mahar caste, which was discriminated against as untouchables. His father, Ramji Sakpal, served in the army under British colonial rule. Bheemabai was his mother, who died when Ambedkar was only six years old.
In 1900, Ambedkar attended Government High School. In 1904, his family moved back to Bombay, and Ambedkar applied to study at Elphinstone High School. He passed his graduation exam quickly in 1907, an event considered unusual for a child of the untouchable class.
Ambedkar felt the humiliation of being discriminated against during his time in school. Once, he and his brother rented a bullock cart to go to Goregaon. The car briefly departed when the Hindu charioteer recognized the Ambedkar brothers as untouchables. He was so angry that he pushed Ambedkar out of the vehicle. For the coachman to quickly overcome his anger, the two brothers had to pay double the price as compensation for them.
In particular, the concept of class has been formed in the minds of upper-class children. Hindu children often put their lunch boxes near the blackboard when going to school. The moment Ambedkar approached the board, they rushed to get all the lunchboxes, fearing that Ambedkar’s approach would contaminate their food.
At this time, the concept of Hindus is very, very harsh. Even a shadow is considered unclean if any untouchable class is close to them. During that time, class distinctions in India could hardly be erased. A child born into an upper-class family is also aware of his status and behavior toward other social classes.
In July 1913, Ambedkar was sent to study at Columbia, USA. Here, he participated in many activities of the Indian student union in the United States. This is a new environment for Ambedkar to experience; he can bring out the youth’s full potential and enthusiasm with the spirit of freedom and equality.
In June 1916, Ambedkar left the United States for London to do his Master of Science thesis, but a year later, he had to return to India because his scholarship had expired.
In 1927, Ambedkar was nominated to the legislature in Bombay. Here, he began to fight for the rights of the untouchables such as the issue of free use of domestic water in a public cistern in Maharashtra.
In Ambedkar’s speech at the Satyagraha conference in Mahad, he addressed the issue of building a social apparatus based on two principles: freedom and equality. Ambedkar was elected to the Constitution Drafting Committee in India to fight for the rights of the untouchable class.
Ambedkar’s movement for equal rights for untouchables is growing more vital for two reasons. Firstly, he is also a member of the unpopular class, so he understands the pain of living in a society with discrimination against human rights. Secondly, Ambedkar is fortunate to travel to many places and interact with many cultures of humankind. Living in a free and equal environment in Western countries is a condition for him to learn and confidently speak his voice. Ambedkar said that “the idea of pollution is a characteristic of Caste.”177And only when caste has a religious flavor can there be freedom and equality. This is also considered an essential basis and condition for him to turn to Buddhism.
- Conversion to Buddhism
Ambedkar wanted to restore the social order arranged by the
- Vasant Moon, 2014, Babasahed Ambedkar writings and speeches Vol 1, Dr. Ambedkar Foundation, India, p.7
Hindus. His essential task was to free the lower classes from the grip of the upper classes. He must first carry out a religious reform for himself to do that. In 1935, he left India and declared he would not die as a Hindu. On May 24, 1956, on the occasion of Vesak, Ambedkar announced his conversion to Buddhism. Describing this important event, wrote the Maha Bodhi, the leading newspaper of Buddhism, “When on the coming Vijaya Dashmi day the lion-hearted leader and his followers make that momentous step forward, a threefold shout of Sadhu!!! Will surely rise from every part of the Buddhist world. And there who labor in the heat of the day in the field of Buddhist revival in India, hearing that shout, will pause for a moment in their work, and know, with joy in their hearts, that at last, the tide has turned.”178
All this time, if India’s Untouchables hid in the shadow of the ruling class, now they have the right to stand up and speak for themselves. Buddhism will bring justice and protect them against the harsh laws of Hindu rule. Buddhism does not advocate mobilizing people to fight with blood and tears; this religion teaches them in the form of non-violence, which, according to Ambedkar, is the reason path.
“Religion, if it is to function, must be in accord with reason. It consists of moral codes, but moral codes must recognize the fundamental tenets of liberty, equality and fraternity. Buddhism fulfilled these requirements.”179
Thus, according to Ambedkar, “the caste system could not be reformed, it should be destroyed. According to him, the only solution was to abandon Hinduism.”180
Thence, he learned about Buddhism and decided to become a Buddhist.
- Dhananjay Keer, 1954, Ambedkar: Life and Mission, Prakashan, India, p.496.
179 Ibid, p.421.
- Johannes Beltz, 2005, Mahar, Buddhist, and Dalit: Religious Conversion and Socio-Political Emancipation, Manohar, New Delhi, 12
Indeed, the Buddha’s teachings can help people apply them in real life to get peace for themselves and others. In particular, Ambedkar has seen the pure life of the Sangha, where there is only harmony, love, and absolutely no discrimination. Sangha was an ideal social model that many people in the untouchable class wished to be able to apply to the entire Indian society at that time.
- Reasons for Conversion to Buddhism
Ambedkar has dedicated his life to understanding and fighting for human rights for the untouchables. Leaving Hinduism for Buddhism was his life’s most significant and boldest decision. Why does he do that? His work, The Buddha and his Dhamma, may have answered this important issue in the most detailed and complete way.
After learning about many contemporary religions in India and Western countries, Ambedkar emphasized: “Hindu religion offers no opportunity for the untouchables to improve their lot, for, it is based on inequality. On the other hand, Buddhism is based on equality and justice.”181
Thus, freedom and equality are the minimum needs of human beings, but living under the Hindu regime, Ambedkar did not find this. Buddhism upholds the spirit of compassion and equality. Regardless of the regime of domination, Buddhism has always considered human rights a factor to be emphasized. So, where human values are upheld, there is freedom and equality. That is why Ambedkar chose Buddhism among the many religious ideologies that existed in India.
Law is always a factor contributing to a peaceful and prosperous society. However, the law must be built on fairness and democracy. After a long study of religions’ social and ideological structure, Ambedkar has concluded: “The society must have either the sanction of law or the sanction of morality to hold it together. Without either society is sure to go to pieces…, Buddhism fulfilled
B R Ambedkar, 1956, Buddha and his Dhamma, Kalpaz
Publications, India, p.12.
this requirement.”182 He believed the teachings of Buddhism will contribute to creating a cultured and ethical society.
Humans are considered objects of Religion, and human conversion is the common task of all religions, not only Buddhism. Ambedkar was imbued with the Buddhist teachings of Dependent Origination, Karma, and Nirvana. Therefore, he wanted to give up the harsh teachings of Hinduism to come to Buddha. His work had a massive impact on the political system of India at that time. It can be said that Ambedkar’s whole life was only fighting to find a way to liberate the untouchables from the harsh laws of the long- standing Hindu regime.
- Revival of Buddhism
Anagarika Dharmapala was a great contributor to the revival of Buddhism in India in 1891 with the founding of the Maha Bodhi Society. This movement continued to be developed under the leadership of Dr. Ambedkar through his conversion to Buddhism and many other Buddhist followers. This event created an important turning point for Indian Buddhism in particular and Buddhism in the world in general.
Ambedkar and Dharmapala believed that the Buddha’s teachings were democratic, so Buddhism benefited and supported nation-building. As for Dharmapala, in his papers attending seminars, he did not hesitate to express his views on the causes of the decline of Indian Buddhism stemming from the fanatical thought of Islam. To revive Buddhism, Dharmapala has focused on developing the spiritual life of the Indian people through important relics in Lumbini and Bodh Gaya. However, this movement attracted a small number of participants.
In December 1954, Ambedkar and his followers promoted the Buddhist revival movement in India. During the third Buddhist conference in Yangon, he presented some of his views
- Dhananjay Keer, 1954, Ambedkar: Life and Mission, Prakashan, India, p.421
on Buddhism. He emphasized the issue of “Ceylon and Burma were in the forefront of Buddhist countries. He felt, however, that a lot of money was squandered on decoration during celebrations of Buddhist religious festivities… the Burmese and Ceylonese Buddhists should spend that money on the revival and propagation of Buddhism in other countries.”183
According to Ambedkar, the revival of Buddhism in India requires a lot of time and money. For him, using money to decorate the outside appearance of Buddhist events is a waste; instead, we should use that money to spread and improve the development of Buddhism.
Ambedkar advocated bringing Buddhism into India to develop in a new form called Neo-Buddhism. In addition to declaring the 22 curses during the conversion ceremony, Ambedkar also transmitted the Five Precepts for those who aspire to take refuge in the Triple Gem. He said that: “We must organize a huge machinery for the propagation of Dhamma. Every Buddhist has the right to initiate others. I make this announcement today. Go forth with the message of the Buddha. Go forth to liberate people.”184
Since then, Buddhists have performed the Five Precepts by themselves without needing a Bhikkhu or a Bhikkhuni. This issue caused a lot of controversy in public opinion. They said that Ambedkar’s work goes against traditional Buddhist thought and is not in the spirit of the Buddha’s teachings. Here, we can understand Ambedkar wants to revive Indian Buddhism to regain human rights in society rather than build a form of religion.
At that time, there were about six hundred thousand followers of Buddhism, an opportunity for this religion to find new vitality in India. To maintain and develop faith among Buddhists, Ambedkar
- Dhananjay Keer, 1954, Ambedkar: Life and Mission, Prakashan, India, p.481
- Ahir, 1998, Ambedkar’s Vision of Dhamma: An Assessment, B. R.
Publishing Corporation, Nimri Commercial Centre, Ashok Vihar, Delhi, p.141
organized “Dhamma Diksha Ceremony.”185 According to him, people who come to Buddhism do not stop at the usual title of being a Buddhist, but they need to believe in the Buddha and his teachings firmly. Ambedkar understood that the decline of Buddhism in India was partly because the Buddhists did not have strong beliefs; they were quickly absorbed in the spirit through the rituals of Hinduism. Therefore, an initiation rite is necessary for a Buddhist when entering the religion.
Ambedkar plans to establish a Buddhism seminary in Bangalore to train missionaries to spread the faith in India. The issue of school construction, library system, housing, etc., was given special attention by him. Thus, not only Buddhism, a religion considered to exist, must have all the requirements on the leader, the doctrinal system and the followers. Ambedkar understood that, although Buddhism was established with a transparent system of teachings, it was necessary to have people who spread the Dharma to maintain the development of this religion. The Buddha also mentioned this in the Mahaparinirvana Sūtra
“I shall not come to my final passing away, Evil One, until my Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis, Laymen and Laywomen, have come to be true disciples… they shall be able to preach this convincing and liberating Dhamma.”186
Thus, in any era, Fourfold disciples, including Monks, Nuns, Laymen and Laywomen, have a significant role in Dharma propagation.
In November 1951, Ambedkar began to write a book titled: The Buddha and His Dhamma. By early 1956, the book was published. Although his current health condition is frail, Ambedkar still tries to work non-stop. All his efforts were aimed at spreading the
- Diksha is the Sanskrit word for “initiation”. It can be used to refer to a ceremony in which a guru initiation a student into their teaching. Dhamma is the Teaching of the Buddha. So, Dhamma Diksha Ceremony mean A Buddhist Ritual for Beginers.
- Vajira & Francis, 1998, Maha-parinibbana Sutta, Buddhist Publication
Society, Sri-Lanka, p.27
Dharma to the masses. The work The Buddha and His Dhamma presents the Buddha’s teachings and Sangha and focuses on the thought of some other religions in India. The book’s message is to eliminate social evils such as unequal and caste distinction and fight for the rights of the Dalit people and the backward classes at that time.
“Without religion, our struggle will not survive”187, those are the words of Ambedkar in Agra on March 18, 1965. Buddhism is the biggest fulcrum among many religions that he has ever studied. In many seminars inside and outside India, Ambedkar still shows the spirit of fighting for the untouchable class in the form of non- violence. Amid protests from Indian political leaders, Ambedkar stood firm and stood for the sake of reviving Buddhism. He understood that it was also the way to bring freedom and equality to the unpopular class.
In response to Ambedkar’s enthusiasm as he spent half his life seeking to revive Buddhism, thousands of people from the Depressed Class into Nagpur. They raised slogans in support of Buddhism. Everywhere in the streets of Nagpur, the atmosphere of Buddhism has permeated. People are not only happy with the path they have chosen, but they also feel the actual value of people when living in a Buddhist environment.
At another time, Ambedkar stood on the podium and announced his renunciation of Hinduism and he called on those who wanted to join Buddhism to stand up and peel off the theocratic shell of Hinduism. At that time, there were about 30,000 followers of Buddhism. They chanted the slogan of taking refuge in the Triple Gem as the right choice to end the long dark journey.
In Ambedkar’s last speech at the Shyam Hotel, he said that he was more interested in the religious aspect than in politics. Because he understood that the political regime might not be based on religious forms, but religious thought significantly influences
- Tartakov, Gary, 2003, R. Ambedkar and Navayana Diksha, Oxford
University Press, New Delhi, p. 281
the contemporary political regime. Therefore, for Ambedkar to rebuild the political order in India must be based on Buddhist teachings. Not only Ambedkar but many leaders in other countries have also found it necessary to apply Buddhist thought to the issue of building a national political regime. In Tibet, King Songtsen Gampo promulgated laws to harmonize with the Ten Virtues and Sixteen Laws prescribed by Buddhism. In The Tibetan Buddhist History book is written:
“Now this king, Songtsen Gampo, who conquered all of Tibet and greater Tibet, he developed in greater Tibet which he occupied and where he established his authority he created laws based on Buddhism. There were laws to award those who conducted the ten virtues and laws to punish those who conducted the ten non- virtues.”188
That is the wise vision of a political leader. More importantly, Buddhist rules are the standard morality of society. Coming to Buddhism, people will feel peace and equality even if they live in any political regime.
As a rule of life, at 6:30 a.m. on December 6, 1956, Ambedkar passed away to the grief and regrets of his family and colleagues. He left the world when his Buddhist revival was still unfinished. Dr. Ambedkar’s death was a shock to the Dalits. They began to take to the streets to commemorate and organize demonstrations in Kanpur. Although Ambedkar has passed away, his Buddhist revival movement still greatly influences the masses. Bellwinkel- Schempp recorded: “In 1957, Pragyanand held a mass conversion drive in Lucknow for 15 000 lay persons, a mammoth gathering and the biggest in those days in northern India. With the establishment of the Republican Party of India (RPI) in 1956, the bifurcation of the scheduled caste movement and backward caste movement ended.”189
James Blumenthal, 2007, Tibetan Buddhist History, Mandala, Tibet,
p.5.
- Bellwinkel-Schempp, 2004, Roots of Ambedkar Buddhism in Kanpur,
Oxford University Press, New Delhi, p.13
Although bound by the laws of birth, old age, sickness, and death of life, Ambedkar did his best for the Buddhist revival movement in India. Although this movement has not been deployed nationwide, it has greatly influenced Indian social life. Untouchable caste can understand that religion once appeared in their country. Religion always brings the message of love, wisdom, and equality, and this is Buddhism.
CONCLUSION
Ambedkar was born into an untouchable class, but he was a fortunate man. Since he was young, he was educated and exposed to different classes of Indian society. Growing up, the study environment in European countries made him more aware and thought about the central regime existing in his country. For thousands of years, the tyranny of Hinduism remained rigid and ruthless. Hindu scriptures have instilled in the heads of the depressed class harsh laws that make them only bow to their fate.
Ambedkar’s conversion to Buddhism came as a thunderbolt aimed at the old system of Hindu rule. Leaving behind the binding traditional religious ideas, Ambedkar came to Buddhism as a mark of a path of change and spiritual development. Hinduism also has paradises, but the red carpet of heaven is only for the upper strata, and the depressed class is just a speck of dust for others to trample. So, for Ambedkar, guiding the Dalits to Buddhism not only liberated them from their physical toil but also returned their spiritual freedom.
After converting to Buddhism, Ambedkar’s journey to revive Buddhism in India was extremely difficult. The problem of changing the minds of educated people in Indian society is challenging. However, Ambedkar continued spreading Buddhist ideas when possible. In meetings or attending seminars, he always enthusiastically raised his views on the doctrine of liberation. Building a Buddhist headquarters and writing and publishing books on Buddhist topics helped him spread the Buddha’s thoughts to many people. The limitation of life forced him to end his life at
the age of 65. Although Ambedkar died while his Buddhist revival was still unfinished, it was a springboard for this movement to continue developing.
***
References
- Vajira & Francis, Mahaparinibbana Sutta, Buddhist
Publication Society, Sri-Lanka, 1998.
- Vasant Moon, Babasahed Ambedkar writings and speeches Vol 1, Dr. Ambedkar Foundation, India, 2014.
- Dhananjay Keer, Ambedkar: Life and Mission, Prakashan, India, 1954.
- Johannes Beltz, Mahar, Buddhist, and Dalit: Religious Conversion and Socio-Political Emancipation, Manohar, New Delhi,
- B R Ambedkar, Buddha and his Dhamma, Kalpaz
Publications, India, 1956.
- Tartakov, Gary, R. Ambedkar and Navayana Diksha,
Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2003.
- Ahir, Ambedkar’s Vision of Dhamma: An Assessment, Publishing Corporation, Nimri Commercial Centre, Delhi, 1998.
- James Blumenthal, Tibetan Buddhist History, Mandala,
Tibet, 2007.
- Bellwinkel-Schempp, Roots of Ambedkar Buddhism in Kanpur, Oxford University Press, New Delhi,
***
THE ROLE OF ALEXANDER CUNNINGHAM IN THE BUDDHIST REVIVAL MOVEMENT IN INDIA
Ph.D. Scholar
Thich Nu Hue Ngon – Nguyen Thi Phuong Dung
Center for Mahāyāna Buddhist Studies, Acharya Nagarjuna University.
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|
Abstract
his article focuses on the role of Alexander Cunningham in the Buddhist revival movement in India and shows
respect and affection for him. In 1871, he was the first Director General Archaeological Survey of India, overseeing such Buddhist pilgrimage sites as Bodhgaya, Sarnath, Sanchi, etc. It also briefly describes the function of the Archaeological Survey of India, which preserves ancient and Buddhist remains.
Keyword: The Role of Alexander Cunningham, The Buddhist Revival Movement, ASI
Introduction
The Buddhist revival movement aims to reintroduce Buddha’s teachings to India. It begins with significant grand movements such as Anagarika Dharmapala’s establishment of the Maha Bodhi Society in 1891. In 1950, B. R. Ambedkar led the Buddhist movement among Dalits. In 1959, the 14th Dalai Lama led the exile of Tibetans to Dharamshala in the Himalayan region of India, while S. N. Goenka established Vipassana meditation centres worldwide.
From 1891 onwards, Anagarika Dharmapala fought Mahant Hinduism to return control of the Mahabodhi Temple to the Buddhist Community. He intended for this sacred Buddhist site to be maintained by our own Bhikkhus. In 1885, Sir Edwin Arnold also published his famous work “The Light of Asia,” which described the obscurity of the Mahabodhi Temple. Before Angarika Dharmapala and B. R. Ambedkar, in the 18th and 19th centuries, however, Western scholars and explorers travelled to India to uncover its primordial history. Sir Alexander Cunningham stands out among them as the foremost archaeologist involved in restoring Buddhist heritage and other sites in India. According to some scholars, Buddhists owe him a particular debt. When pilgrims today visit Buddhist holy sites, they should recall his contributions. The fact that he is one of the pioneers of the Buddhist revival movement in the archaeological faculty is highly regarded.
Biography of Sir Alexander Cunningham
Born in London, England, Alexander Cunningham (1814- 1893) was the son of Allan Cunningham (1784-1842) and Jean née Walker (1791–1864). He arrived in Calcutta, India, in 1833 and served as a second lieutenant in the Bengal Engineers under the authority of the British government of India. During 1856-1858, Alexander Cunningham was the Chief Engineer in Burma. After 28 years of service, he retired and completed his military career in India in 1961.
Alexander Cunningham met James Prinsep (1799-1840), who was prominent in deciphering the ancient Indian Kharosthi and Brahmi scripts, engaged in architecture, secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, publisher of the Journal of the Asiatic Society, and coin collector. Early on, James Prinsep inspired Cunningham regarding Indian archaeology and antiquity. Ventura was also a general under Ranjit Singh (the first Maharaja of the Sikh Empire), who permitted him to excavate “topes” (towers) in Punjab. Alexander Cunningham excavated Sarnath in 1837, following Ventura and other historians and archaeologists. As an engineer in the state of Gwalior, he was drawn to the stupas at Sanchi, where he discovered the sacred relics of two great disciples of Buddha, Mahatheras: Sariputta and Moggallana.
In November 1861, Alexander Cunningham sent Lord Canning a letter in which he criticized the government’s indifference towards the antiquities of India. It was understandable that the government had previously been preoccupied with expanding and consolidating the empire. Still, the time had come for the British government to conduct a careful and systematic investigation of ancient India’s extant monuments.190 Cunningham was designated as the first Archaeological Surveyor of India as a result. His work only endured for five years (1861-1865). Then, in subsequent years, there was a funding gap, and it stopped. In 1970, Lord Mayo re-instituted the Archaeological Survey of India. In 1871, he was appointed the first Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India. After 50 years of service in India, he finally retired in 1885 and returned to his native London.
The Decline of Buddhism in India
The condition of Buddhism in medieval India is based on the writings of Chinese pilgrims such as Faxian (399-414) and Xuanzang (629-644). Scholars believe that while Buddhism flourished in some regions, it declined elsewhere. At the end of the twelfth century, there was a consensus among historians that it collapsed, weakened, and disintegrated rapidly and utterly.191
- Abu Imam, Sir Alexander Cunningham (1814-1893): the First Phase of Indian Archaeology, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, No. 3/4 Oct., 1964, 199.
- T. S. Sarao, Decline of Indian Buddhism: A Fresh Perspective, Munshiram Manoharlal, 2012, p. 5.
The Muslim army led by the Turkic Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji, whose origins were in Afghanistan, attacked Northwest and North India and destroyed Hindu and Buddhist temples. Nalanda University, Odantapuri Monastery, and Vikramashila Monastery, the most significant, largest, and oldest Buddhist centres at the time, were also devastated. Odantapuri Mahavihara (now located in Bihar) was destroyed by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1197 and Vikramashila around 1200. An invader slaughtered Buddhist priests. They flee to Nepal, Tibet, and South India to avoid conquest or move to the Hindu kingdoms of South India to avoid persecution. However, it cannot be said that Indian Buddhism was extinct or wholly vanished.
Buddhism survived in most parts of India after the 12th century, including Bengal, Orissa, and Bihar, as well as Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu), the Cola Kingdom (Coromandel Coast), Dvaravati (Gujarat), and Jalamdhara (Punjab).
It is difficult to identify the causes of Buddhism’s decline in India. Some scholars discuss and provide several hypotheses- based explanations for this, such as:
- The moral and ethical deterioration of the Sangha;
- The viciousness of the Brahmans;
- Persecution by Brahmanical Hindu monarchs and lack of
support from the royal sponsor;
- Sectarianism and the development of Mahāyāna and Vajrayana Buddhism;
- Arab and Turkish attacks;
- Role of Sufism;
- The rise of the Bhakti movement and the resurgence of
Brahmanical Hinduism;
- Sangha, laity relationships, urbanization’s decline, and an
evolving material environment.
Some analyses emphasize attacks by Arab and Turkish Muslim forces, which they view as a crucial factor in the decline of Indian Buddhism. Some theories suggested that temples in ruins were depicted as having been destroyed by Muslim fanatics and that missing treasures or statues were either looted by Muslim invaders or concealed by Hindus and Buddhists out of fear of Muslim raids. In order to legitimize their rule and gain the allegiance of Indians, the administrator historians of the British Raj began distorting Indian history by claiming that their policies were more humane than those of the previous “Muslim” rulers. Numerous colonial historians of the nineteenth century labelled all Arabs, Turks, and Mughals as “Islamic invaders.”192 In reality, Muslim authorities persecuted Hinduism, Buddhism, and other religions. However, Buddhism suffered severe damage. Hindu and Muslim rulers fought among themselves as much as they did against one another.193 Hinduism is more closely associated with Indian culture and social influences than Buddhism, which is more revivalist.
The locals of Patna, Rajgir, and Mathura, once Buddhist strongholds, could not even identify the Buddhist relics discovered there. The Buddha statues that were not obliterated in numerous locations became Hindu deities. Buddhist stupas that had been abandoned for centuries became so inundated with trees and vegetation that they resembled mounds.194 Thousands of Buddhist shrines were either destroyed, plundered, or usurped. When monks ceased to exist, monasteries were destroyed, and Buddhist scriptures and other writings were also lost.195 Due to persecution by heresy, they were compelled to bury their images and were expelled from their monasteries by fire. Alexander Cunningham unearthed numerous Buddhist images at Sarnath near Benares
- T. S. Sarao, The Decline of Buddhism in India: A Fresh Perspective, Munshiram Manoharlal, 2012, p. 151.
- p.152
- Chan Khoon San, The Eight Great Places of Buddhist Pilgrimage,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 2018, p. 28.
- C. Ahir, The Pioneers of Buddhist Revival in India, Sri Satguru, 1989, Introduction.
in 1835, which had been purposely hidden underground.196 It is the darkness that Buddhist shrines, monasteries, stupas, images, and monuments were relapsed into ruin, debris, and forgotten by people. Other religions appropriated some of them.
Buddhism was nearly extinct by the end of the 19th century in the British Raj (1858-1947), except for the Himalayan region, the east, and a few nook locations.
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
Even though Indian Buddhism has fallen into disrepair and Buddhist priests are no longer present. However, their monasteries, temples, paintings and sculptures, and historical writings still exist to illustrate the history and attest to the glorious era of Buddhism in the past and its worth and contributions to humanity. Upon the arrival of the British Raj in the eighteenth century, Buddhism could be reestablished after centuries of obscurity and ruin. It attracted Western scholars and explorers, who unearthed and preserved the buried treasures. It was believed that the end of Mongol Muslim rule and the advent of the British Raj presented excellent opportunities for the revival of Buddhism in India.
According to reports by Alexander Cunningham, the extant Buddhist remains can be divided into four distinct categories: 1. Numerous cave temples with topes (stupas), sculptures, frescoes, and inscriptions; 2. Monasteries viharas; 3. Inscriptions on stones and columns; 4. Topes or religious structures.197
According to the AMASR Act., 1958 (the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains), its general conception is now the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains.
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is under the Ministry of Culture of India faculty. Alexander Cunningham was the first Archaeological surveyor from 1861 to 1865 and the first Director
- Alexander Cunningham, Bhilsa Topes, Smith, Elder, and , Cornhill,
London, p. 2.
- , p. 4.
General of the ASI from 1871 to 1885 as a separate department. At present, it has 29 Directors General. During 1981-1983, Debala Mitra was the first Indian woman to serve as Director General. Her contribution involved conducting several Buddhist sites.
ASI is responsible for archaeological investigations and the country’s conservation and preservation of cultural-historical monuments. It also pertains to the museum system and other ASI aspects. In 1798, the Asiatic Society of Bengal conceived of the idea of establishing a residence for the collection of archaeological artifacts. Later, in 1814, it became the first museum and was renamed the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Sir John Marshall, the third Director General of the ASI, considered establishing archaeological site museums in 1905. In 1946, Sir Mortimer Wheeler, the ninth Director General of the ASI, continued to separate the Museums Branch. N. P. Chakravarti (1948-1950), an Indian archaeologist, held the position of Director General following India’s independence. Currently, ASI oversees a total of 46 museums in India, which is a significant increase from the previous number.
Alexander Cunningham’s Contribution to the Buddhist Revival Movement in India
In his time, exploration was a difficult and risky business. Most of his travel was on horseback, but he also utilized elephants, bullock carriages, camels, foot, and the railway. Aside from this, individuals were always suspicious of the archaeologist prowling the ruins and the uncooperative cleric. His excavation was frequently interrupted by ghostly apparitions—the dangers of tigers, robbers, disease, etc.198 Therefore, it requires both abilities and hardships, which emphasizes the role of Alexander Cunningham in archaeology in Buddhism and other religions.
Sir Alexander Cunningham excavated and opened the
Dhammek Stupa in Sarnath in 1837, Sankassa in 1842, Sanchi
- Abu Imam, Sir Alexander Cunningham (1814-1893): The First Phase of Indian Archaeology, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1963, p. 199.
in 1851, the Mahabodhi Temple in 1870, and the Bharhut Stupa in 1873-1874. He also identified several locations: Aornos, Ahichchhatra, Bairat, Kosambi, Nalanda, Padmavati, Sangala, Shravasti, Srughna, Taxila, and Vaishali. Most significantly, he oversaw the following holy sites:
- Bodh Gaya (Pali: Buddhagaya) is where the Buddha attained Enlightenment. It is an ancient city 105 kilometres from Patna called Pataliputra, the capital of the Magadha The complex contains Buddha-related structures such as the Great Temple of Mahabodhi, the Bodhi Tree, the Diamond Seat, Asoka’s Railing, Asoka’s Pillar, Toran Gateway, the Monastery of Mahabodhi Sangharama, Votive Stupas, and other structures.
Buddhagaya flourished during the Maurya, Shunga, Huvishka, Gupta, and later Pala dynasties. After Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji’s conquest, the Mahabodhi Temple was abandoned and in ruins for six centuries. In 1590, Mahant Hinduism took control of Buddhagaya and performed rituals at the main shrine, Mahabodhi Temple. Buddhagaya’s rebirth began in the 19th century. It was restored based on the existing remains and an ancient model. The Burmese dispatched a mission to rebuild this sacred site. Their restoration, however, failed. Fortunately, the British Governor at the time attracted it. Sir Ashley Eden, Lieut., the Governor of Bengal, tasked Mr J.D. Beglar with reconstructing Mahabodhi Temple in 1880.199
Alexander Cunningham frequently visited and returned to this location in 1961, 1871, 1881, etc. In 1879, he travelled to Buddhagaya to witness the Burmese restoration. However, Alexander Cunningham was pleased with Mr. Beglar’s design and restoration. He discovered the original Asoka’s Temple. In 1881, he also found the old Vajrasana Stone and the remnants of the cloistered path with its 22 pillar bases bearing the Asoka alphabet. The present Mahabodhi Temple is constructed directly over the
- Alexander Cunningham, Mahabodhi or The Great Buddhist Temple under The Bodhi Tree at Buddhagaya, H. Allen & Co., London,1892, p. vi.
ruins of Asoka’s Temple, and the original Diamond Throne still rests on the old seat of Buddha’s Enlightenment. In 1862, the Bodhi tree was severely rotten. In 1871, he saw the tree again. 1875 it was completely rotten, and in 1876, a wind brought it down. In 1885, he and Mr Beglar discovered the remains of a large monastery with an outer wall 9 feet thick and massive round towers at the four corners.200 The main gate, or Toran Gateway, is in front of Mahabodhi Temple, which was rebuilt by Cunningham and Mr Beglar in 1879.
- Sanarth: Deer Park (Mrigadava) discusses significant Buddhist events such as the first “turn of the law wheel” and the establishment of the Buddhist Sangha. Sarnath means “best Lord” and is related to the God Mahadeva, with the symbol Lingam. Alexander Cunningham asserts that its name is an abbreviation of Sarangganatha, which refers to Mahadeva, frequently depicted clutching a deer in his left It also mentions the Jataka tale of the Bodhisattva as the monarch of a herd of deer.201
Ancient monuments such as stupas, monasteries, shrines, and stone column pillars remain dated from 3rd B.C. to 12th A.D. They are known as the Dhamek Stupa, the Dharmarajika Stupa, the Asoka Pillar, the Mulagandha Kuti Vihara (where the Buddha spent his first rain retreat), the Dharma Chakra Jina Vihara (monasteries), and the Chaukhandi Stupa (site considers the meeting between Buddha and five ascetics.)
Sarnath was known in the early 18th century by Europeans like William Hodges. In his value account, Jonathan Duncan described that in 1793-1794, Jagat Singh opened the largest stupa to acquire stones and bricks for constructing a marketplace in Banaras. It was named after him, Jagatganj. The earliest discovery made by Jagat Singh was two stone and marble vessels, one inside the other, containing a few human bones, some decayed pearls, gold leaves, and other worthless jewels, as well as a Buddha statue bearing
- p.43.
- Alexander Cunningham, Archaeological Report 1861-1862, The Government Central Press, 1871, p.
an inscription dated 1016 A.D. In 1835, Alexander Cunningham also continued excavation on this massively damaged tower. He found an older man named Sangkar, who saw the discovery of Jagat Singh as proof. Cunningham satisfied conform that the relic within the vessel was Buddha’s relic. Major Kittoe and Mr. Thomas continued their survey in Sarnath after that.
Alexander Cunningham opened the Dhamek Stupa, commemorating Buddha’s first sermon to his five disciples. According to him, the term Dhamek is merely an abbreviation of the Sanskrit term Dharmmopadesaka, which translates to “Preacher of Dharma.” Dharmma desaka is naturally shortened to Dhamadek and Dhamek for dialogue convenience.202
The Chaukhandi Stupa included a mound and was topped by an octagonal brick building erected by Mughal Emperor Akbar in 1588 to remember his father, Humayun. Otherwise, Alexander Cunningham also explored the structures that encompass Deer Park, including a vihara monastery with a sanctuary and cells, votive stupas, inscriptions, images, etc.
Sanchi is located on a hilltop in a tiny village 10 kilometres from Vidisha. Buddhist monuments such as stupas, temples, viharas, monolithic pillars, a large stone bowl, etc., dating back to Asoka’s reign. Sanchi, or Sachi, is a form of the Sanskrit word “Santi.” Alexander Cunningham discovered the term Santi-sangha (the Santi community) used in the inscription on the southern pillar of the Great Stupa. It translates to “silence, repose.”203
Sanchi was a well-known ancient Buddhist centre due to the important event of Emperor Asoka and his wife. Asoka stopped here while travelling between Pataliputra and Ujjain. Therefore, Chetiyagiri (or Chaitya Hill) is the Sanchi hill on which the Great Chaitya now stands. Buddhaghoso calls the location Wesanagara, while Mahanamo refers to it as Chetiya and Chetiyagiri. Therefore,
202 Ibid., p. 113.
203 Alexander Cunningham, The Bhilsa Topes, Smith, Elder, and Co.,
Cornhill, London, 1854, p. 182.
the Great Stupa existed in 270 B.C., during Asoka’s rule of Ujjain.204
On the route to Ujjain, Asoka fell in love with a lovely girl named Devi, the daughter of a merchant near Vidisha. Before travelling to Sri Lanka to propagate Buddhism, Mahinda stopped in Chetiyagiri (Sanchi), his mother’s homeland, according to Buddhist chronicles from Sri Lanka.
The Great Stupa (Stupa No. 1 or Sanchi Stupa) is the oldest, largest, and most beautiful, depicted on the current 200 Indian Rupee. In 1822, amateurs created a large fissure on the southwest side of this stupa. As a result, it descended into ruin and destruction without being restored. The visitors can still observe the breach incision now. Sir Alexander Cunningham and Maisey excavated the Sanchi Stupa with careful attention in 1951. According to him, the non-discovery of relics suggests that this Great Stupa was constructed in honour of the Supreme Buddha. However, he thought that it contained Buddha’s relics. Monks carried off relics during the decline of monastic Buddhism.
Stupa No. 2 was constructed after Stupa No. 1. Sir Alexander Cunningham and Lieutenant Maisey excavated this stupa. The caskets contain holy men’s relics, and their names are carved clearly. Alexander Cunningham stated that Stupa No. 2 contained the relics of at least ten Buddhist monastic leaders during the reign of Asoka. Kasyapa Gotra and Madhyama’s relics propagated Buddhism to the Hemawanta kingdom after the third council. In the relic box were also the names Vacchi Suvijayata and Mogaliputra, chief of the third Buddhist council.205
Special Stupa No. 3 comprised two massive stone boxes with the names of Sariputta and Maha Mogalana carved on the lids. Alexander Cunningham provided a precise description of the location of the relics. The South bore Sariputta relics, whereas the North bore Maha Moggallana relics. Their ashes were located to the right and left of Buddha as they were alive. Their relics
204 Ibid., p. 270.
205 Ibid., 291.
were also located at Stupa No. 2 in Satdhara. Faxian observed that Mathura also contained the stupas of two Mahatheras. According to Cunningham, their relics were stored in their native Rajagaha stupa before Asoka distributed them to numerous locations. They were enshrined at Chetiyagiri Vihara in 1952 after spending considerable time in England and Sri Lanka.
Otherwise, Sonari (10 km from Sanchi), Satdhara (9 km from Sanchi), Bhojpur (11 km from Sanchi), and Andher (6km from Sanchi) are Buddhist sites found in the vicinity of Bhilsa or Vidisha. Saru Maru (100 km from Sanchi) and Bharhut (300 km from Sanchi) were discovered and uncovered by Lieutenant Maisey and Alexander Cunningham himself.
CONCLUSION
Today’s attractive shines, towers, monuments, and sites result from the zealous dedication of the first Director General Archaeological Survey of India, Alexander Cunningham, and his successors. Because of his passion for ancient remains and suffering to see the damage of constructions by nature and humans, his primary role is in identifying and preserving many important archaeological sites and monuments remains. Particularly interested in Buddhist heritage, he excavated great places such as Bodhgaya, Sarnath, Sanchi, Kusinagar, and Bharhut. He reflected on their conditions precisely, plainly, and truthfully during excavation.
Alexander Cunningham rearranged them, transforming them from a mere jumble of ruins and fragments and measured their dimensions before and after every discovery. Typically, antique monuments are preserved and kept in situ, deposited in museums, and documented in writing. He meticulously created the plates and drawings for Bodhgaya, Sarnath, Sanchi, and others.
Moreover, he contributed to the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal and published several noteworthy publications and reports. Besides, his contributions include surveying, discovering, and decoding many of Asoka’s inscriptions, collecting coins, and clarifying ancient Indian geography.
References
- Alexander Cunningham, The Bhilsa Topes, Smith, Elder,
and Co., Cornhill, London, 1854, p. 270.
- Alexander Cunningham, Archaeological Report 1861- 1862, The Government Central Press,
- Alexander Cunningham, Mahabodhi or The Great Buddhist Temple under The Bodhi Tree at Buddhagaya, H. Allen & Co., London, 1892.
- S. Sarao, Decline of Indian Buddhism: A Fresh Perspective, Munshiram Manoharlal, 2012.
- Chan Khoon San, The Eight Great Places of Buddhist Pilgrimage, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,
- Ahir, The Pioneers of Buddhist Revival in India, Sri Satguru, 1989.
- Abu Imam, Sir Alexander Cunningham (1814-1893): The First Phase of Indian Archaeology, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 3/4, Oct., 1964.
Appendix
Alexander Cunningham Map of main structures (1814-1893) in Bodhgaya
Sketch of the main constructions in Sarnath (Source: A. Cunningham, Archaeological Report 1961-1962, Plate XXXII)
Two boxes relics of Sariputta and Moggallana in Stupa No.3 Sanchi. (Source: A. Cunningham, The Bhilsa Topes, Plate XXII)
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IDEAS FOR THE REVIVAL OF INDIAN BUDDHISM IN THE FUTURE
Research Scholar:
Thich Nu Thanh Dieu – Nguyen Thi My Chi
Gautam Buddha University
Abstract
Looking at the reality of Indian Buddhism today, the writer always carries in his heart a nostalgia, longing for how to revive Indian Buddhism in its own homeland. During a process of research and actual survey, the writer has chosen the topic: “Ideas for the Revival of Indian Buddhism in the Future” aims of this theme helping those who practice the bodhisattva path, with the vow to devote themselves to spreading the Dharma, for the sake of sentient beings like Ven. Dharmapala and Ambeka in modern times. Because Buddhism originated in India and holds an important place in its cultural and spiritual heritage, it has influenced people since ancient times. Especially from the time of King Asoka in the 3rd century B.C. to the present. Therefore, it is essential to understand how it can be adjusted and adapted to the contemporary social context; How to harmonize between religions each other. Especially Hinduism, Islam, and other religions; How to solve challenges in the spirit of harmony following the Buddha’s teachings; How to revive, develop, prosper, and survive Indian Buddhism in its own homeland in the Future.
Keywords: Ideas, Revival, and Future
Introduction
These are the three important keywords in the topic. Here, the writer explains the word as follows:
Ideas: Refers to guiding principles, beliefs, or standards that are considered aspirations or goals. In the context of Indian Buddhist revival, the ideas that Disciples of Buddha shall nurture, In oneself’s hearts they always aspire How to revive Buddhism in India and Buddhism in the world?
We embody noble values such as compassion, wisdom, ethical behavior, mindfulness, meditation, and especially enlightenment according to the Buddha’s teachings. These ideas give a foundation and vision for the future revival of Indian Buddhism in the future.
Revival: Refers to the process of rejuvenating, reviving, or renewing something that had been forgotten or declined. In the context of the Indian present day. The revival involves efforts to restore and revive what was previously prosperous. But for many internal and external reasons, Buddhism has fallen into decline. It also renaissance cultural significance of ancient Buddhism in India. This may include initiatives to re-establish Buddhist institutions, promote awareness and understanding of worthy Buddhism, engage with youth, and preserve Buddhist heritage.
As we know, Buddhism was born in India almost twenty- six centuries ago. Because of these historical events in Indian Buddhism gradual across over gradually passed, then sank into oblivion. It can be said that from the 14th century to the early 19th century A.D. was actually forgotten. It happened exactly as the Buddha taught in the Nikaya-Sutta, that after the Buddha passed away, there were places where the name of the Three Jewels was no longer heard nor known. Indeed, the Indian people are completely ignorant of Buddhism, while Mahāyāna Buddhism thrives in Vietnam, China, Taiwan, Japan, and Korea and Theravada Buddhism prospers in Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, etc., But in its own homeland, it is completely unknown. Indian Buddhism has rich cultural, and philosophical heritage and long history there will be hope for its revival, and renewed interest in Buddhism in recent years has been remarkable, with millions of people around the world turning to this ancient spiritual tradition to rely on, practice and enjoy countless great benefits as well as peace from the precious teachings of a Perfectly Enlightenment. Today I would also like to present the topic “Ideas for the Revival of Indian Buddhism in the Future”. This is a theme that explores the historical and cultural significance of Buddhism in India, its current state, and the need for revival.
1. Overview of a few historical facts about the life of the Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama was born in (563-483 BC) at Lumbini in Nepal.
In his childrenhood, he lived in a golden palace, but always kept an indescribable sadness in his heart. He was sad because of the suffering of a human life in a vicious circle. After, he had been walking through the four gates.
He realized the truth about the suffering of old man, illness, death and a monk of a human life. Although he had a beautiful wife and children, but he decided to leave home to seek the truth at the age of 19 according to Mahāyāna Buddhism (29 years old according to Theravada Buddhism).
He later attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, and became known as a Buddha in India.
During the rest of the Buddha’s life, he mostly travelled to northeastern extensively across India, delivering discourses and teachings for 49 years (Mahāyāna Buddhism) and established the Eight Assembles which were Monks (Bhikkhus), Nuns (Bhikkhunis), Laymen (Upāsaka), Laywomen (Upāsikā), Devas (Gods or Celestial Beings), Humans, Non-human beings, and Supremely Enlightened Ones (Arahants).
The teachings of the Buddha, which emphasized the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, Thirty-Seven Aids (Factors) to Enlightenment and Twelve Causes and Conditions etc., His Dharma resonated to reach far to the masses. It helped spread Buddhism throughout the Indian subcontinent and beyond. His disciples, specially king Asoka (304 – 232 BCE).
He ordered to bring Buddha’s teachings to neighboring
countries like Ceylon, Myanmar (Burma) and Thailand, etc.
Buddhism played a significant role in shaping Indian culture, when Emperor Ashoka converted to Buddhism and supported its spread across the Indian subcontinent and foreign countries.
During this period, Buddhism flourished, and many important Buddhist sites, such as the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Lumbini, Kushinagar and another place were built.
However, Buddhism declined in India during the medieval period due to various factors, there are many reasons for the decline of Buddhism in India. many main causes such as foreign invasions, The extreme rulers of Hinduism have massacred Buddhism as King Pushyamitra Shunga, who ruled from 187 to 151 BC, and King Sasanka, who ruled from 606 to 637 AD, were both hostile to Buddhism. Some historical sources, Researchers, historians, and scholars, Buddhist monks claim that he persecuted Monks and nuns and targeted Buddhist institutions. he destroyed monasteries, temples and Buddhist structures, often resorting to violence such as burning these places of worship and killing monks and nuns. Besides, the Brahmins on the one hand launched an anti-Buddhist campaign and persecuted Buddhists, and on the other hand brought the good points of Buddhism into their doctrinal system to convince the masses. In addition, the brutal slaughter of Islam. In 1193, the Nalanda University was attacked and destroyed by the forces of the Turkish general Bakhtiyar Khilji, who was a commander under Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the founder of the Delhi Sultanate.
https://indiandharmicgenocidemuseum.com/(Indian Dharmic Genocides Museum Nalanda-genocide-1193.)
He ordered kill estimated: 12,000 people include: Monks, Nuns and Scholars who followed studying this university and 9 million scripts burned within six months. In addition, the emigration of Buddhist scholars and monks to other parts of Asia. Simultaneously, combined with some mistakes of individual monks and nuns, it quickly caused Buddhism to decline in India. Since then, Indian Buddhism lost its vitality, and its influence gradually diminished. Eventually, many sacred sites fell into disrepair, decay, and ruin. Besides, some sacred places have fallen into the hands of other religions or people encroached on them. There is a very fortunate thing for Buddhism in India. In the mid 19 century A.D. Officials, Researchers, monks and scholars in the West and Eastaswith the activities of Archaeologists such as Prinsep, Cunningham, A.C. L Carlleyle, Dr Fūhreror etc., creating the most prominent movement to revive Buddhism in India under the leadership of Dharmapala, DevapriyaValisinha, Ven. K. Siriniwasa, Ven. D. Sasanasiri, Ven.
- Jinaratana, Ven. U. Dhammaratana, Ven. M. Sangharatana, Ven. Fujii Guruji, Ven. Mahavira, Ven. Kripasaran, Ven. Bodhananda, Rahul Sankriyayan, dharmanandaKosambi, Ven. Jagdish Kashyap,
Dr Ambedkar, The Holiness 14th Dalai Lama, Ven. Thich Nhat
Hanh, etc.,
2. The Ideas to Revive Indian Buddhism
Nominate the Most Veneralbe Bhikkhus to increase Indian
immigration
To revive Indian Buddhism in modern times, the following steps are required: Each country should nominate the Most Venerable monks and Nuns who are both profound knowlegde and virtuous who have the same desire to practice The Bodhisattva Way immigrated to India, learned the Indian language, and spread the Buddha’s teachings to the people. To contribute to the strengthening of Buddhist monks in India. SoBecause at present there are too few Buddhist monks, many areas do not have monasteries and monks.
Policy and Support of the India Government
Discuss policies and support government that can help the development and maintenance of Buddhist institutions, including monasteries, temples, universities and the Buddhist Sangha.
Today, the Government of India has also shown us that they are also actively supporting the revival of Buddhism such as creating favourable conditions for pilgrims, international Buddhists Monks and Nuns come to temporarily resident in the campus of Universities to study Buddhism such as Gautam Buddha University, Shubhati University, Delhi University, Nagarjuna University, Allahabad University, Varanasi University so on. They have also provided financial support for the construction and security of the Buddhist places. The Indian government provides financial support to various Buddhist institutions, including the Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, the Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, and the International Buddhist Confederation. The government also provides support for the restoration and maintenance of Buddhist sites, such as the Mahabodhi Temple Complex in Bodh Gaya.
Developing and maintaining Buddhist institutions, including monasteries, temples, and universities, requires significant resources from Buddhist monks. Beside, Government policies and funds can play a role important in supporting these organizations and human resourses.
The government can provide financial support, tax exemptions and legal support such as entry visas; long-term stay; non-ticketed Buddhist pilgrimage sites; permission to broadcast philosophy channels of Buddhism; allowing the opening of meditation centers; etc. Recently, the Global Buddhist Summit was held in New Delhi on April 20-21 April, 2023. At the ceremony, Prime Minister Narendra Modi also began for ceremony and raised the issues: Challenges in contemporary society for the Buddhist Monks, Nuns, scholars, Lay men, lay women to discuss.
In particular. He mentioned the benefits that Buddhism brings for peace, not only for myself but for all over the world. These may also contribute to promoting the study of Buddhism, along with the preservation and development of Buddhist culture in Buddha’s homeland.
- International Buddhist Fund Equipment to support Indian Buddhism
To revive and develop of Indian Buddhism
it is necessary to have a financial fund to build monasteries for monks to reside in, and build Buddhist classes from elementary school to University. Build meditation centres etc., Venerable Monks and Nuns who teach the above schools or Universities to attract the interest in studies of young Bhikkhus of countries.
- Alllocation of Buddhist work to Venerable Monks and Nuns
Currently, countries around the world have also implemented this work, but the efficiency is not high. Because, many Buddhist monks of countries often focus on built-in four holy places related to the life of Buddha such as the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya; Sarnath; Lumbini; and Kushinagar. some pagodas are calling on Buddhists to contribute and build in the form of businesses. I think that this work only contributes to the decline of Buddhism, not the revival of Buddhism in India. There will be some monks and nuns who said that they must rent workers, servants, or pay many kind of bills for everything in the monastery. Because, the monastery became like a hotel. I don’t agree with this thought. At any cost, the holy place must be kept pure. The Buddhist Monasteries of all countries need to intervene in a timely by international Buddhist. I wish that in the future, monks and nuns come to the Holy Land, they only think in their heads that they are practicing the Buddha’s teachings, no longer dominating any expenses, to do this requires genuine spiritual monks to guide and protect strange monks from many countries.
- Moral Buddhist education
According to the Buddha’s teachings, the moral education of the young generation can be guided by the Noble Eightfold Path and keeping the Five Precepts. Here are some key aspects to consider: The Five Precepts are the foundation of ethical behaviour in Buddhism, they include abstaining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and drink alcohol or smoke intoxicating substances. All people especially teenagers who follow this teaching will reduce the burden on society. The family will not have to worry about the husband and wife having sexual misconduct, or putting furniture on the street or in a deep alley without fear of losing them. Therefore, Moral people try keeping the five precepts, then society will be peaceful, people will live in friendliness, the home by home will be happy and peaceful.
- Community Engagement
Engage with Buddhist communities and join meditation courses, or volunteer to participate in voluntary organizations or material support to everone in our ability or shared practical experiences to a community can deepen your understanding, motivation, and commitment to applying Buddha’s teachings.
3. Adjust and adapt what to suit the younger generation
International Buddhist Sangha should distribute the bhikkhus residing all over India. International monks must coordinate with the local monks to promptly guide Buddhist work on how to adapt to customs, culture, the law of location, etc.
- Engaging the Youth
Create programs and initiatives specifically designed to engage young people in Buddhist teachings. Organize youth retreats, conference, and interactive events that combine traditional practices with contemporary methods, such as art, music, and mindfulness-based activities.
- Embracing new technology
Currently, we are living in the digital age, so the use of modern technology is very necessary for monks and nuns, who cannot ignore. Because, they are the embassy of the Tathagata, who bring the message of the Buddha to everyone. Technology and media are the fastest-spreading mediums. So, to spread the Buddha’s teachings about mindfulness, sit meditation, chanting, courses of studies, hold Buddhist festivals, retreats of rainy seasons and more. So use social media to share Buddhist wisdom and reach out to the masses. It is extremely necessary for today’s young monks.
4. Solving difficulties and challenges in the current social context
Buddhist revival in modern times can face many challenges
and difficulties. I will give some common obstacles that can arise:
- Changing social values:
Science develops, material life is enhanced, and humans demand enjoyment. Therefore, most people in modern society often pay more attention to materialism, consumerism and individualism. Today’s some youth class follows technology such as being addicted to useless games, spinning in intonation music, addicted to the ecstatic sensations of alcohol from light to strong, addictive types of poker and drugs etc. It is extremely difficult for
young people to turn to spiritual values. Therefore, some young people pursue worldly pleasures rather than spiritual values and moral practices.
- Cultural, customs and language barriers
In areas where Buddhism has long been in decline, it is difficult for people to accept a new idea or a new teaching. Besides, there are some barriers in terms of culture, customs, ways of communicating with the community about language, behaviour, misconceptions, and false beliefs etc., That is a big challenge. Requiring dharma preachers to practice good conduct of the bodhisattva path to be able to suffer, work hard, guide and lead with great compassion, the masses will gradually fall in love with the missionary. Only then they will slowly penetrate the Buddha’s teachings.
- Domination of other religions
India is a majority Hindu country, whose Hinduism had been the acrimonious caste system division from the time of the Buddha is still very influential ingrained in Indian society to this day. This is a great challenge that requires a Buddhist monk who has transcendent wisdom, unconditional love and multiculturalism to be able to transform the deeply rooted concept of the people too long tỉme. Therefore, individuals from lower castes who wish to convert to Buddhism may encounter harsh opposition and discrimination. Besides, other religions, such as Islam and Christianity, also have milions followers. Buddhism faces the challenge of establishing its position in the dominant other religious traditions. How to be attracting new followers in this multi-religious society. It is too hard work.
5. Applying Buddha’s teachings in daily life and practising meditation
Applying Buddha’s teachings in daily life and practising meditation can have an inner transformation of oneself and others, remove all of the defilements, and our mind will become calm down and happy. Here are some suggestions on how to integrate Buddha’s teachings and practice meditation in your daily life:
- Mindfulness in Daily Activities
Cultivate mindfulness by bringing conscious awareness to your daily activities. Pay attention to the present moment, whether it’s eating, walking, working, or interacting with others. This practice helps develop a deep sense of presence and enhances your ability to observe your thoughts, emotions, actions and all body.
- Practice Noble Eightfold Path
To practice the Noble Eightfold Path, which consists of eight interconnected principles: Right View, Right Intention, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration. This is the only path to lead complete enlightenment as clearly stated by the Buddha in the Nikayas.
- Meditation Practice
Dedicate time each day for formal meditation practice. Vipassana meditation, also known as insight meditation, is a central practice in Buddhism. It involves observing on the whole body, feeling, mind and Dharma. with clear awareness without interference or control. Watch until this body and mind are completely selfless.
- Loving kindness and Compassion practice
Cultivate loving-kindness (Metta) and compassion (Karuna) towards yourself and others. We practice sending well wishes and positive intentions to all beings, always empathy forgive with others’s mistakes with loving-kindness and compassion non- conditions.
- Study Buddhist Teachings
Engage in the study of Buddhist scriptures, texts, and teachings. Read books, attend Dharma talks, or join study groups to deepen your understanding of Buddhist philosophy, concepts, and principles. Reflect on the teachings and find out proper ways to apply them in our daily life.
- Noble Qualities Development
Reflect on and cultivate the noble qualities inner our mind such as generosity, keeping rules, patience, gratitude, equanimity, and wisdom. Set intentions to develop these qualities in our daily life, both towards ourselfves and others.
Conclusion
In today’s society, when science and technology has progressed like a storm, people have been immersed in the achievements that science brings, so they have to race without stopping. Sometimes looking back they feel tired of the life of a human being. There are adults or children who are too stuck in this life or in learning they did not find a way. Finally They choose to end their lives in vain. Here the writer does not deny the achievements of science technology for everyone. But the writer shows ways to overcome the deadlocks that people are facing. The advancement of science and technology is essential for our progressive life. But if we are not skillful, we will encounter problems of deadlock, stress and suffering. Therefore, the writer has found methods and ideas based on the Buddha’s teachings to solve difficult problems, deadlocks, and sufferings in life of human beings today. Therefore, the revival of Buddhism in India in particular or around the world is extremely necessary for today’s society. As scientist A. Einstein said that:
“Science without religion is lame. Religion without science is blind” or “The religion of the future will be a cosmic religion. It would transcend a person God and avoid dogmas and theology. Covering both the natural and the spiritual, it should be based on a religious sense, arising from the experience of all things, natural and spiritual, as a meaningful unity. Buddhism answers this description”.
Finally, the writer would like to reaffirm one thing that, the ideas that I give, for those who have the spirit of Buddhist revival in India or Buddhist revival the world, everyone can reference my article in the revival of Buddhism. The writer has always wished that the intellectual torch of Buddhism would light for life to solve the challenges and problems of the modern world. The application of Buddhist teachings in many different aspects will of course bring a lot of joy, excitement and happiness in this life.
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- (VINAYA-PIṬAKA) The Book of the Discipline, London:
The Pali Text Society, 1938, Translated ByI. B. HORNER, M.A, (SUTTAVIBHAṄGA) V-1.
- Peter, Harvey. An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices (2nd ). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
- K. Warder. Indian Buddhism, Delhi: Mothal
Banarsidass,1970.
- Sarao, T.S. The Decline of Buddhism in India, New Delhi: Munshiram Manobarlal, 2012.
https://buddhistculture.weebly.com/uploads/3/1/7/3/ 3173298/maps-of-ancient-buddhist-india.pdf
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CHAPTER V
REMARKABLE CHAPTER
BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY HAS COME TO THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES
Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương
presentation at the Delhi Conference July 1, 2023 Visiting lecturer of Buddhist University in HCM City This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.
|
uddhism is one of the world’s largest religions and
originated 2,600 years ago in India. Buddhists believe that human life is one of suffering and that meditation, spiritual and physical labor, and good behavior are one of the ways to achieve enlightenment or nirvana.
Buddhist history in the United States acknowledged that Buddhism was introduced into America by Asian immigrants in the mid-nineteenth century when significant numbers of immigrants from East Asia began to arrive. The US is home to Chinese Buddhists, Japanese Buddhists, Korean Buddhists, Vietnamese Buddhists, Thai Buddhists, Cambodian Buddhists, Lao Buddhists, and Buddhists with family backgrounds in nearly every Buddhist country and region in the world.
Even though a young country (eighteenth century to present), the United States is a developed country, a powerful member of most of the prominent international organizations, and has the largest number of individuals and organizations who have won
Nobel Prizes. Definetely, it posseses many prestigious universities or leading educational cultural centers to train their citizens or international reseachers. Among it, Religion and Buddhist Studies in American colleges and universities is also famous and attracts many students, researchers and scholars from many countries who come here to learn.
American Flag and the Statue of Liberty
1. BUDDHIST STUDIES IN THE ART FACULTY
There are some Buddhist-based universities that provide many degrees on Buddhology or Buddhist philosophy. University means high/great learning. It provides the facilities for teaching and research and are authorized to grant academic degrees. When universities are created, the founders embrace and portray an endless and vast vision, an expanse that encompasses humanity and stretches throughout the universe. That is called “university.” Buddhist philosophy or Buddhism means the Buddha’s teaching about the moral and mindfulness at the mental, verbal, and bodily, precept-meditation-wisdom, salvation, and enlightenment to bring the happiness and peace for the sake of self and others.
The Buddhist-based university focuses on the Buddhist Studies field, and its founders are Buddhist monastics. Like other universities, it offers degrees— BA, MA and PhD from many falcuties of the Arts (Buddhist Studies, Languages, Linguistics, Literature, Psycology, Philisophy, History . . .), Commerce and
Business, Education, Law, Magagement, Fine Arts, Science, Social Sciences, and Technology. However, Buddhist-based universities are famous for providing a Buddhist Studes Department, and its founders are Buddhist monastics.
Shakyamuni Buddha
Buddhist-inspired universities in America are state-accredited institutes that have received permission to operation from the government. In California, the universities are under the auspices of the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC). It is “an organization providing accreditation of public and private universities, colleges, secondary and elementary schools in California and Hawaii...”206
2. BUDDHIST-BASED UNIVERSITIES IN THE UNITED STATES ARE FOUNDED BY ASIAN MONASTICS, ARE ACCEPTED THE ACCREDITATION
In the United States, there are four famous Buddhist-inspired
universities: Naropa, University of the West, Soka and Dharma Realm Buddhist University. The state of California has three universities among these four.
California is the city of Los Angeles, Hollywood, the Golden Gate Bridge, Alcatraz Island, and also the best place for knowledge and spiritual development for global research. California is a state full of diversity, and that is certainly represented within the Buddhist-based universities
NAROPA UNIVERSITY (Boulder, Colorado) was founded by Tibetan Buddhist teacher, Chogym Trungpa, in It is named for the eleventh-century Indian Buddhist sage, Naropa, the last abbot of Nalanda University in northern India. It was established under “the auspices of Mahāyāna Buddhism, Nalanda flourished in India from the fifth to the twelfth centuries. At Nalanda, Buddhist philosophy and the discipline of meditation provided the upward environment in which scholars, artists and healers from many Asian countries and religious traditions came to study, debate and learn from one another.”207
Naropa has 3.7 acres with two campuses surrounded by greeny trees. It is very peaceful with the zen design of rocks, plants, branches, flowers...
The university’s aim is to heal, counsel, and guide with Buddhist psychology and to practice mindfulness, meditation, and self-reflection:
The purpose of Naropa Institute is to bring together the dynamics of opposites, to unite extremes in viewpoints. When opposites rub against each other, there is a spark of energy. Our interest is to make Naropa Institute a place where intellectual activity will be combined with experience, to blend the two kinds of knowing—the intellectual with the intuitive. The split between East and West is the split between the mind and the heart.208
2.1.1. THE FOUNDER OF NAROPA UNIVERSITY
Chogyam Trungpa was born on March 5, 1939, in a nomadic encampment in the Nangchen region of Kham, Tibet. Trungpa has been famous in both popular and academic publications, from magazine articles to studies of contemporary Buddhism, and there are scores of websites dedicated to his memory. He was a Tibetan monk, but later he disrobed to marry an English woman.
There are many sources about his life and autobiography, however, one of Trungpa’s contributions was to form the Naropa University in Boulder, Colorado, the first Buddhist University in America.
Tibetan Buddhist Teacher Chogyam Trungpa
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2.1.2. HISTORY AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMS
According to the information of the website Treasury of
Lives:209
Initially under the administrative control of Vajradhatu, it began as a summer session in 1974, with courses taught by famous writers, musicians, and religious teachers such as Ram Dass (1931–2019), Allen Ginsberg (1926–1997), Anne Waldman (b. 1945), Joan Halifax (b. 1942), and John Cage (1912–1992). Trungpa apparently wanted to name the new school after the famous Indian monastic university, Nalanda, but others felt it would be too presumptuous. So he named it after the eleventh-century Indian Buddhist saint Naropa, who served as one of Nalanda’s last abbots. Ginsburg and Waldman organized the creative writing program, which they named the Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics. More than 1,500 students came the first summer.210
Since the 1990s, it has been considered the cradle of “the contemplative education movement in America.”211 It often hosted many seminars on spirituality with thousands of students and intellectuals attending.
In the 1970s, the amount of undergraduate students at Naropa University increased to 900. The number of instructors is seventy. At present, it has 1,052 students; average age is thirty-two. They seek for knowledge and intuitive wisdom to work together.
Time passed quickly, Naropa University prepares to welcome visitors to celebrate Naropa’s fiftieth anniversary in 2024. Visistor are warmly invited to connect to “Naropa at 50” in any and all ways. The event will mark the appreciation of the past and present without limit, as we envision the future we will create together for the “sparks of wisdom to fly in all directions.”212
- https://treasuryoflives.org/biographies/view/Eleventh-Trungpa- Chogyam-Trungpa/11231
- https://www.naropa.edu/about-naropa/history-of-naropa/
- https://www.naropa.edu/about-naropa/history-of-naropa/
Naropa University overview
Naropa University promised to be an ideal place for students from all over the world who can come, join ,and practice mindfulness and compassion. It is a place of “creativity, innovation, artistic expression and social engagement.”213
- UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST (Rosemead, California) was founded in 1990 by the Late Venerable Hsing Yun, founder of the Taiwan-based Buddhist order, Fo Guang Shan, and Hsi Lai Temple, the North American order 214
This university is operated under the nonprofit public benefit corporation law of the state of California and was accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC).215 This institute is the pioneering partnership between Chinese and American Buddhists to form an American university integrating liberal arts traditions and Buddhist wisdom. Because it is a private oganization, almost the funds came from Fo Guang Shan Temple (Taiwan) as the current president, Dr. Minh-Hoa Ta, said that “40 percent of scholarships and fund are from Fo Guang Shan Temple
- https://www.uwest.edu/
- Tanya Storch, Buddhist-Based Universities in the United States: Searching for a New Model in Higher Education, (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2015) 12.
(Taiwan), because it is the headquarter of the University of the West.” Fo Guang Shan was established not only for those interested in the field of education but also to provide cultural programs to students and reseachers through the Buddha’s teachings. On that basis, Fo Guang Shan has reached thousands of people around the world. The main work of Fo Guang Shan in terms of education includes:
- Sponsoring meetings, cultural seminars and community education, colleges, and universities.
- Sponsoring seminars, conferences on universal education and Buddhist education at home and abroad.
- Recruiting and training talented monks and nuns to represent Fo Guang Shan in preaching around the
- Providing financial resources to print Buddhist scriptures for the purpose of developing the dharma to bring happiness and peace to everyone.
- Sponsoring cultural and educational exchanges of the
- And cultural activities related to
The 14th Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso and Master Hsing Yun
Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương at University of The West in June 2023
2.2.1. THE FOUNDER OF UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST
Venerable Master Hsing Yun was born in 1927, in Jiangdu,
Jiangsu Province, China.
In 1967, Master Hsing Yun founded the organization Fo Guang Shan (Buddha Light Mountain) with four principles:
- Using culture to propagate Buddhism
- Using education to train the talented person
- Using charity to bring benefits to society
- Using practice to purify people’s hearts
In 1988, he inaugurated Hsi Lai Temple in the United States and in 1991 inaugurated University of the West in America.
Statue of Venerable Hsing Yun at University of The West and author (Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương) June 2023
From 1994 to the end of his life, Master Hsing Yun (ninety- seven years old) devoted much of his time to developing Buddhism in Western countries through the International Fo Guang Shan Association, a Buddhist organization that made a very strong impression on the Western world. The association has held its annual congress in Canada, Australia, France, and the United States.216
2.2.2. FO GUANG SHAN
Fo Guang Shan (the Buddha Light International Association) in Taiwan was formed under the leadership of Master Hsing Yun. It is one of the largest Buddhist organizations in the world.
Fo Guang Shan overview
Founded in Taiwan in 1967, it now has over 200 branch temples and associated centers throughout the world. Ever since its beginning, the organization has continuously developed in all aspects.
Author Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong (center, beige dress) and Vietnamese Buddhists at Fo Guang Shan in 2019
2.2.3. HSI LAI TEMPLE
Hsi Lai Temple (northern Puente Hills, Hacienda Heights, Los Angeles County) covers fifteen acres, which includes ten major buildings, including the main shrine, library, auditorium, convention hall, exhibition hall, Buddhist art museum, memorial pagoda, and dining hall. It is designed in “the tradition of Chinese palatial architecture and is the most expansive Buddhist temple and monastic center in the Western hemisphere.”217 Hsi Lai Temple is an attempt to restore the ancient, beautiful, aesthetic architecture to introduce the West to a mysterious teaching of the Buddha. It is a fully equipped organization, with very sophisticated technology, and a telecommunications center with the best equipment. It can be considered the first Buddhist monastery to be a valuable asset of the East in the United States. Indeed, it is an eloquent demonstration of what Buddhism looks like in the twenty-first century as a religion, a culture, education, charity, and an attractive landscape for everyone in society.
View of Hsi Lai Temple
2.2.4. HISTORY AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMS
In regard to the academic programs, University of the West embraces the East-West model of education, so it provides many undergraduate and graduate programs. It has comparative religion,
Buddhist studies, business, psychology, English, and liberal arts chaplaincy (in hospitals, prisons, universities, US military bases, and other necessary places). It also has the Digital Sanskrit Canon Project and the Center for the Study of Minority and Small Business218 to train Buddhists for leadership in America.
One building of University of The West
According to the University of the West’s website, the mission of University of the West is to provide a “whole-person education in a context informed by Buddhist wisdom and values, and to facilitate cultural understanding and appreciation between East and West,”219 thus the Buddhist-based university was established in America to introduce the Asian religion to the Western culture.
Hsi Lai Temple has many vivid daily activities, chanting,
giving dharma talks, meditation, rituals, funeral services, weddings, Buddhist rituals, vegetarian food, along with charitable organizations in Los Angeles and around the world. It plays the role of a field trip for students and reseachers of Buddhist studies in University of the West. Many students came to Hsi Lai Temple to volunteer, serve as interns, and practice vegetarianism, avoiding harming animals, protect the natural environment, keep moral behavior, no crime, no violence, no bullies—following the Buddha’s teaching. Because of their connection with Hsi Lai Temple and the great founder, Master Hsing Yun, many students chose University of West to learn to change their thinking and make their life better. This makes improvements in the student’s life and is exactly the kind of education society needs.
- SOKA UNIVERSITY (Aliso Viejo, California) was founded in 1987 by Ikeda Daisaku. He was the chaiman of Soka Gakkai Association, a Japanese Buddhist religious movement, an international Nichiren Buddhist organization with the secular schools committed to Buddhist philosophy.
Soka University overview
“Soka” is combined from two Japanese words: sozo (creation) and kachi (value) which refers to value creation because Soka University focuses on students’ innate abilities and teaches them how to create beauty and value in every aspect of human life and nature.
2.3.1. THE FOUNDER OF SOKA UNIVERSITY
Ikeda Daisaku was born in Tokyo in 1928. Within his first years as president (the third one), Ikeda Daisaku traveled to connect with Soka Gakkai’s members in North and South America, Europe, Asia, and other parts of the world.
He is one of the most influential Buddhist leaders alive because Nichiren Buddhism, a particular school upon which the Soka Gakkai International was founded, is now practiced in more than 192 countries and territories.
In 1993 at Harvard University, Daisaku Ikeda delivered a lecture, “Mahāyāna Buddhism and Twenty-first Century Civilization” to remark on the valuable importance of Mahāyāna Buddhism for world peace. Later, he founded the Boston Research Center for the twenty-first entury to provide a place for interfaith dialogue. In 1996, he erected the Daisaku Ikeda College, the Toda Institute for Global Peace and Policy Research (bearing his master’s name). In 1987, he established Soka University of America, Aliso Viejo, California.
Daisaku Ikeda is considered as “the Buddhist thinker, leader, peace builder, prolific writer and poet, educator, and proponent and practitioner of wide-ranging dialogue. Ikeda’s dialogue partners have included Arnold Toynbee, Mikhail Gorbachev, Nelson Mandela, Rosa Parks, Herbie Hancock, Adolfo Pérez Esquivel, and other influential figures in the worldwide shift to a culture of peace and mutual understanding. Many of these dialogues have been published in book form.”220
Ikeda Daisaku, the founder of Soka University of America
2.3.2. HISTORY AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMS 2.3.2.a.
Soka University of America is a private liberal arts college in Aliso Viejo, California originally founded in 1987. In 1995, Soka University was expanded by more than 103 acres of land in Aliso Viejo, Orange County and to build the beautiful campus. The current campus was erected in 2001 by Daisaku Ikeda.
One Campus of Soka University
Soka Gakkai International Organization has more than ten million members in 192 countries, so it has a large rich budget. They use their resources to support one another. That is why Tanya Storch in her book, Buddhist-Based Universities in the United States: Searching for a New Model in Higher Education221 said that:
During a time of economic crisis, this small private university has an operating endowment of more than 400 million dollars while its scholarship endowment exceeds 100 million dollars. The explanation is in the Soka education’s support system. Soka University of America’s president, Dr. Daniel Habuki, wrote hundreds of letters to people who had attended and graduated from various Soka schools, including the Tokyo-based high school from which he graduated. Soka graduates from around the world made generous donations to the American Soka University.”24
Author Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương and Bhikṣuṇī TN Viên Chân at Soka University in June 2023
Storch, Buddhist-Based Universities,
2.3.2.b. THE ACADEMIC PROGRAMS
Soka University of America has the undergraduate, graduate and research programs:
Author Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương at Soka University in June 2023
According to US News and World Reports: “As a private, four-year Liberal Art College and University, Soka University of America ranks among top fifty in the nation according to “Best College 2014.” In 2012, Soka University of America was ranked number one with the most international students enrolled among all colleges and universities by US News and World Report “Best Colleges 2012.”
- DHARMA REALM BUDDHIST UNIVERSITY (Ukiah, California) was established in 1976 in Ukiah, California by Chinese Venerable Master Hsuan It is an American private
nonprofit university inside the Ten Thousand Buddha Monastery, just over 100 miles north of San Francisco, in Mendocino County. It provides four-year college teaching courses primarily related to Buddhism and some general-interest subjects.
Dharma Realm means the surrounding landscape is all dharma and the awakening phennomenon is without ignorance. Dharma Realm Buddhist University was named with the wish whoever enters this university, will become an awakened one, an enlightened one. This university play the role of a place devoted to understanding ourselves, the nature of the wider universe and its workings, and our place in it.
- THE FOUNDER
Master Hsuan Hua at the gate of City of Ten Thousand Buddhas
Venerable Master Hsuan Hua (1918–1995), one of the most eminent Chinese Buddhist masters of the twentieth century, was a monastic reformer and the first Chinese master to teach Buddhism to large numbers of Westerners.
The 14th Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso and Master Hsuan Hua
In the spirit of “For the dharma, forget oneself,” the Master did not mind the hardships, regularly going to the ashrams at home and abroad to propagate the Buddha’s teachings. He was respected by all for his ascetic lifestyle and observance of the Vinaya. During the Dharma Ending period when many people did not respect this precept, he set a good example and encouraged an ascetic life by eating only one meal a day at noon and sleeping sitting down at night, not lying down.
He lived patiently, tolerantly, fasting many times to dedicate merit to sentient beings. The missile crisis in Cuba in 1962 occurred not long after he arrived in the United States. He went on a five-week hunger strike to dedicate himself to world peace. On the occasion of his trip to Taiwan in 1989, he fasted for three weeks to dedicate to the people of Taiwan. After that, he went to preach Dharma in many European countries.
Although he was old, he still did not want to rest. For thirty years in a tireless manner, he lectured and expounded on Buddhist scriptures, holding high the brilliant lamp of wisdom to light the way for sentient beings immersed in the darkness of this dharma- ending age. It was while he was sick to endure suffering for sentient beings, that he persisted in continuing to make great vows to interpret Buddhist scriptures.
On June 7, 1995, Master Hsuan Hua passed away in Los
Angeles, USA, giving disciples three important responsibilities:
- To continue to propagate the Buddhadharma
- To translate Buddhist scriptures
- To complete the educational career
Obeying his teachings, the four groups of disciples (Bhikkhu, Bhikkhuni. Upasaka (masculine) or Upasika (feminine) at the Dharma Realm Buddhist University devoted themselves to reciting the the Avataṃsaka Sūtra (the Flower Adornment) and reciting the Buddha’s name for forty-nine days beginning the day he passed away.
Although he did not want to leave a trace in this world, his merits of spreading the dharma in the West, translating scriptures, and establishing monasteries, schools, college, and university during his lifetime planted the seeds of Bodhi and has had a profound effect on all classes of the Western population. His imprints will never fade with time.
2.4.2. HISTORY AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMS
The Dharma Realm Buddhist University is large with 448 acres. There are twenty-five institutional buildings on the land including the Instilling Goodness Elementary School, the Developing Virtue Secondary School, the Joyous Giving Dorm for Nuns and The Tathagata Monastery Dormitory for monks. On the road in the campus yard, there are many awakening signs with names such as Compassion Avenue, the Kindness Walk, the Patience Street, the Joyous Way, and so on. It really help to remind us to be awake and mindful when stepping onto the university.
2.4.2.c. UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAM
Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Arts has ten distinct strands: Buddhist Classics, Western Classics, Chinese Classics, Indian Classics, Language, Mathematics, Natural Science, Rhetoric and Writing, Music, and Capstone. The core curriculum consists of primary texts—Buddhist, Western, Indian, and Chinese Classics—studied and discussed in a pro-seminar setting, conducted in the spirit of shared interpretive inquiry. Through a close reading of primary classics, students are able to enter into the dynamic dialogues from which many of these texts emerged.
2.4.2.d. Graduate Admissions
The Master of Arts and Doctorate program in Buddhist Classics provides an understanding of Buddhism through close reading and careful analysis of its primary sources. The curriculum, spread out over a two-year course of study, is designed to expose students to
key ideas and issues of the Buddhist philosophical tradition. View of Dharma Realm Buddhist University
2.4.2.e. Graduate Certificate in Buddhist Translation Admissions
Since the Buddhist sciptures are in ancient languages, it is required to translate into modern languages such as English, Chinese, Spanish and more. The DRBU provides a Graduate Certificate in Buddhist Translation. It is an integrated two-semester program that combines translation of Buddhist texts from Chinese/ Sanskrit into English with study, practice, and service in a monastic setting.
The curriculum will provide the skills: “translation theory and methodology, cultural and historical contextualization, and practical translation experience. It provides a theoretical grounding along with a wealth of hands-on translation experience.”222
Dharma Realm Buddhist University is a small private school dedicated to liberal education in the broad Buddhist tradition. It often hold chanting, meditation courses, rituals, retreats, and dhamma talks with many visiting monks.
Dharma Talk with Abhayagiri monks at the Sudhana Center in Ukiah
- UNIVERSITIES IN THE UNITED STATES AFFILIATED WITH BUDDHIST STUDIES ARE ACCREDITED
Besides the above four Buddhist-based universities of Naropa, the West, Soka, and Dharma Realm Buddhist University in Colorado and California, the United States has many universities which are not founded by Buddhist Asian monastics, but have the Buddhology in their religious studies as follows:
- University of Wisconsin-Madison (Wisconsin) founded in 1848, UW–Madison is the official state university of and the flagship campus of the University of Wisconsin It has a Religious Studies Program, Buddhist philosophy, Tibetan studies, and Tibetan Buddhism. The Late Venerable Thích Chơn Thiện, Professor Lê Mạnh Thác, studied and graduated there. In California, BhikṣuṇīTịnh Quang (Quan Am Buddhist Meditation, Redlands) also holds a PhD there.
- University of California, Berkeley (California), was founded in 1868. It has the Numata Center for Buddhist Studies and the Berkeley Group in Buddhist Studies which offer the BA, MA and PhD courses, from an interdisciplinary program of study and research leading to a PhD in Buddhist Studies. It also has a program of Buddhist Studies as the ministerial training and it is affiliated with the Graduate Theological Union.
- Harvard University (Massachusetts) was founded in The Buddhist Ministry Initiative (BMI) at Harvard Divinity School—the first of its kind at a divinity school within a research university in the United States—trains future Buddhist religious professionals in terms appropriate to modern, global conditions. While doing doctoral work in Buddhist Studies at Harvard, it is possible to investigate ideas, practices, experiences, institutions,
and life worlds created by Buddhists in all times and places, South Asia, East Asia, Inner Asia, and Tibet.
- University of Chicago was founded in 1890 by John D. The study of Buddhism at the University of Chicago engages students and faculty from across campus. While they don’t offer an official degree-granting program on “Buddhist Studies,” UChicago has produced not only a significant number of Buddhist studies scholars but scholarship of great significance in the field.223
- University of California, Riverside, was established in 1907. It has a Religion Department in which major religions of Asian origin, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and Shinto are taught. It covers major themes in the relation of science and religion. The primary focus is on issues between science and Western religions, with attention to Islam,
Buddhism, and Hinduism.
Even the author (BhikṣuṇīGioi Huong) earned a PhD of Buddhist Studies in Delhi University, but when I settled down in California (2010), I also studied Asian Literature at the University of California, Riverside, with some credits of Buddhist Studies in Religion Department here (2013–2017).
Author Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương graduated Literature in UCR in 2016
America is an advanced country. There are many more private, state, and goverment colleges and universities that teach Buddhist Studies under the name of Religon or Art Faculty, such an University of California, Los Angeles, University of Texas, University of Arizona, University of Hawaii, University of Florida, University of Michigan, University of Virginia, University of Washington, University of Yale, University of Columbia, University of Yale,
University of Princeton, University of Cornell, and so on.
These Buddhist universities in the United States have existed for decades and are accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges. Others are relatively new and are either in the process of being accredited or else have no formal accreditation. In particular, at these universities there are many professors who have studied Buddhism full-time to teach or write about Buddhism.
4. BUDDHIST STUDIES ARE HIDDEN UNDER DIFFERENT DEPARTMENTS
Most of the Buddhist-based universities have departments of Buddhist Studies, obviously, and universities are proud to house it. However, in the United States, almost all of the above universities do not have a Buddhist Studies Department, but studies are affiliated with other subects like Religion, Southern Asian Studies, Eastern Asian Studies, Asian Studies, Anthopology, Sociology, Psychology, History, Philosophy, and Literature.
The subject of Buddhist Studies is often hidden under the other names, either:
- Religious Studies\(Hinduism, Christian, Jainism, Muslim, Buddhism, ..)
- The Area/Geographic/Cultural Studies program (Asian Studies, East Asian Studies, South Asian Studies, Tibet, Vietnam, Thai Lan, Sri Lanka, Korean ..)
- The particular subject as Literature, Psychology, Philosophy, History, Archaeology, Language, Film, Music and so
5. MAJOR BUDDHIST STUDIES IS LEARNED LATER BUT FIRST LEARN GENERAL KNOWLEGE
Like most universities’ structure in the world, in an MA
program, the candidate must learn general education and later narrow their scope in Buddhist Studies (major). For example, Religious Studies firstly requires the students to have a general basic knowledge of all religious traditions, as well as familiarity with the theoretical literature of the study of religion; later if the researcher studies for a master’s or doctorate, then he/she will limit the scope to one religion like learning in the shape of a pyramid, first is general, later narrows the scope.
In regard the Area Studies, the student first focuses on Asian languages (Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese, Japanese, Tibetan, Korean, Vietnamese) and then the study of Buddhism in its various historical and cultural contexts. At the PhD courses, the reseachers are often required to take some credits of one or two other languages besides English to complete the standards of the university.
6. THE MA, M.PHIL. AND PHD OF BUDDHIST STUDIES
At present, the Buddhist Studies are housed in other subjects such as Religious Studies or Asian Studies, so they usually do not have separate BA degrees in the Buddhist-based universities. The American universities only provide the MA, MPhil. and PhD of Buddhist Studies in other departments in which the Buddhist Studies Programs are divided into several categories. This helps students know and approach slowly the most appropriate plan for their interests and goals.
7. WELCOME EVERY STUDENT TO JOIN BUDDHIST STUDIES CLASS EVEN IT IS NOT HIS/HER MAJOR
In the United States, every academic organization often provides extracurricular courses. Therefore, students pursue other subjects like Law, Medicine, Computer Science and Information Systems, Agriculture, Power Industry, Accounting and Finance, Art and Design, Architecture, Mechanical, Aeronautical and Manufacturing, Engineering, Economics and Econometrics, Business and Management Studies, Engineering and Technology .
. . but he/she can join the general class of Buddhist Studies.
8. BUDDHIST STUDIES FOCUS MORE ONANALYZING OF MATERIAL, NOT TEACHING A FAITH
The universities guide researchers who approach Buddhist Studies to analyze from their point of view the real material of philosophy, history, sociology, psychology, religious studies, and cultural studies. It is not a faith or practice to obtain enlightenment. Serious practice is something a graduate may do later depending on each individual will. But, in universities, the graduate programs generally offer one of three things:
- The ability to pursue a degree in the context of Buddhist
- Courses in the practice of Buddhism that complement academic
- Emphasis on the study of Buddhism from a normative point of view.
9. WHY PEOPLE CHOSE THE BUDDHIST-BASED UNIVERSITY
Many Vietnamese nuns, monks and laymen registered in these four universities of Naropa, the West, Soka, and Dharma Realm. When we asked the reason, most them as Bhikṣuṇī Nguyên Hiếu (Hương Sen Temple), bhikkhuni Phước Nhẫn (Liên Hương Temple)… replied that because these institutes are more focused on spiritual practice, the sense of moral clarity without bullying, violence, killing, and harming as the monastic way that drives professional success and a life of service. This not to much pay attention to the material but finding a balance between intellectual knowledge and intuitive wisdom so they can work together. It blends contemplative practices with traditional academic studies, igniting a spark of presence throughout the educational journey. It seems students become more honest, ethical, mindful, useful, open, and friendly with others. With this spiritual contemplative teaching method, students became inspired by the true love of learning instead of a single desire for material position or a well-paying job.
According to the graduation rate for University of the West, it is said that it is close to “90 percent (compared to barely 50 percent nationwide), and more than 80 percent of graduates find work in their chosen professions. All of them report that they enjoy a high degree of satisfaction for their lives, professions, and especially from the sense of having purpose to their life and being prepared for its psychological challenges.”224
These positive results are proof that education from Buddhist- based universities has the potential effect to build the personality and professional life for a global society.
10. CONCLUSION
Buddhism has been honored as “the World’s Best Religion by the International Union for the Advancement of Religion and Spirituality (ICARUS) in Geneva, Switzerland.” This creates a great honor for the followers of Buddhism, to affirm the unchanging value of the Buddha’s teachings. That is the reasons, many students and researchers from everywhere chose Buddhism as their way of life and learn it in the colleges or universities. This is surprising how widespread the transmission of Buddhism from Asia to the United States is in the twenty and twenty-first centuries, especially in the four Buddhist-based universities of Naropa, the West, Soka, and Dharma Realm were established by Asian (Tibetan, Taiwanese, Japanese, and Chinsese) monastics. They founded Buddhist institutes of higher learning and the distinguished centers with a liberal arts tradition to meet the spiritual needs of the masses, especially students and researchers from many ethnicities, cultures, religions, and countries.
They are well-developed, self-sustaining organizations because every year they have hundreds of their graduates join the national work force with professional skills and spiritual training
- Storch, Buddhist-Based Universities, that emphasizes compassion and insight in life.
Christianity is the dominant religion in the United States There are many Christian colleges and universities such as California Baptist University (San Bernardino, California), Ohio Christian University (Ohio), Southern Methodist University (Dallas, Texas), Texas Christian University (Texas), San Diego Christian College (California), and so on.
Buddhism in America has four famous Buddhist-based universities: Naropa University (Boulder, Colorado), University of the West (Rosemead, California), Soka University (Aliso Viejo, California) and Dharma Realm Buddhist University (Ukiah, California), and many other Buddhist centers for learning.
There are two Jewish universities: the Yeshiva University (founded in 1886, New York) and the American Jewish University (founded in 2007, Los Angeles, California).
Islam has the Islamic American University in Southfield, Michigan. Their vision is to provide “Islamic higher education in the United States of America.”225
The four Buddhist-based universities and other universities provide instruction in Buddhist Studies, the Asian way of life, and Eastern religion. These places offer a cross-cultural curriculum in liberal arts that never before existed in the United States. It is a nonsectarian place for cultural dialogue and peace, where students and professors of different nationalities and religious affiliations socialized and openly worked with one another.
What makes these universities so different from hundreds of other universities across the united States is that education in professional fields and liberal arts is provided using Buddhist studies. This happy message has been tested by more than 2,600 years of history in many different social and political environments. Now, it is being adopted in the twenty-first century in the United States.
Last but not least, these Buddhist-inspired universities are under the auspices of Mahāyāna Buddhism whose founders are following the practice method of this tradition. The teaching methods and universities are the means to help students, researchers, societies, and countries to return their inherent Buddha nature. There is a process of mutual growth; there is neither student nor teacher, neither you nor me, neither bond nor liberation, neither birth-death nor salvation. . . . In that intrinsic nature, there are no figures, marks, attachments, or nondualism. Wayne Chen, director of Development and Strategic Planning at Dharma Realm Buddhist University, commented on the value of Buddhist-based education in the modern American society, “The university aims to become a fully accredited institution under the Western Association of Schools and Colleges; the programs shall strive toward realizing the vision and aspiration set forth by the founder, Master Hsuan Hua and the central pedagogy aims to convey knowledge and activate intrinsic wisdom possessed by all individuals.”226
And what is the vision and aspiration set forth by his students, researchers, professors and all members of Dharma Realm Buddhist University by the founder, Master Hsuan Hua It is “Education is without beginning or end. There is not a single location that is not a place of learning, and there is not a single moment that is not a time for learning.” (Official Website of DRBD)
***
SOURCES
- Improving America’s Schools Together. Louis M. Gomez, Manuelito Biag, David G, Imig, Randy Hitz, and Steve Tozer. Washington, D.C.: Rowman & Litterfield, 2023.
- Seager, Richard Hughes. Buddhism in America (Revised and Expanded Edition). New York: Columbia University Press,
- Storch, Buddhist-Based Universities,
- Storch, Tanya. Buddhist-Based Universities in the United States: Searching for a New Model in Higher Education. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2015.
- Buddhist Universities in the United States of America
- https://internationaljournaldharmastudies.springeropen. com
- Graduate Programs in Buddhist Studies
- https://networks.h-net.org/node/6060/pages/6886/ graduate-programs-buddhist-studies
Where to find Buddhist Studies?
- A Comprehensive List of Buddhist Studies Programs in the United States byy Duncan Ryuken Williams
- https://tricycle.org/magazine/where-to-study/
- How the Swans Came to the Lake, a Narrative History of Buddhism in America edition in 1981, reprinted in 1986 and 1992.
- The Awakening of the West, by Stephen Batchelor, Parallax Press,
- A Brief History of Buddhist Studies in Europe and America
by De Jong, 1987.
- Robert Topmiller, Newsletter of the University of Kentucky, January
- Survey Article: “The Academic Study of Buddhism in the United States,”
- Directory of Buddhist Temples and Organizations in United States, 1999 .
- Our Report: What Has Fo Kuang Shan Achieved (1991).
- Buddha ‘s Light Newsletter1991, 2016
- Handing Down the Light: The Biography of Venerable Master Hsing Yun (1995).
- Star And Cloud: Venerable Master Hsing Yun (2003).
- Fo Guang Shan Monastery Worldwide Web: https://w fgs.org.tw/en (2017)
https://www.buddhistdoor.net https://www.worldhistory.org https://www.pewforum.org https://www.pluralism.org https://www.pewresearch.org
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_universities_and_ colleges_in_the_United_States
https://blog.gitnux.com/buddhism-in-america-statistics/
https://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_ States
http://www.buddhism.org/Fo Guang
Shans/DHARMA/Tripitaka/37FactorsEnlightenment.htm
***
THE PRACTICAL THEORY OF IMPERMANENCE LAW TO IMPROVE ONE’S OWN LIVING LIFE
Bhikkhu Thich Minh Phu – Huynh Thanh Liem
Gautam Buddha University
I.
|
The General Introduction Of Impermanence Theory.
he impermanence (aniccā) theory is the kind of doctrine that Buddha always taught about every day changing phenomena of material and spirit in the world, which is described as one of the basic teachings of Buddhism. According to the Pali- English Dictionary, the adjective aniccā (impermanent) is derived from the negative prefix a- plus niccā (permanent) in modern etymology. So its meaning denies everlastingness because it is not permanent; Thus, it is unapproachable, as a permanent, everlasting
state, thus changing.
Therefore all phenomena of everything are not stable, constantly changing time by time. The philosophical theory of aniccā is a popular topic; everyone may hear it from different sources. Depending on the personal view of the investigation, they can express the impermanence theory in many forms. Somebody explains this impermanent teaching pessimistically, while others define it positively. All of them make separate personal statements about this impermanent philosophy.
From an objective point of view, the impermanent doctrine looks very easy to understand with a simple meaning. Everyone can know this impermanent theory because it always happens in all phenomena around us. However, for the complete comprehension of this theory profoundly; and applying it effectively and thoroughly, we can say that: “It is challenging for anyone to apply this teaching to life effectively”.
In this topic, we will share some practical thoughts on applying the aniccā philosophy to improve morality, convert emotions, transform situations, reduce greed, anger, ignorance, etc. That can make us increase ethics in improving our behavior with other persons. Besides, we can also use this doctrine to broaden the clear vision of life and growth in survival in modern life in the present and future.
II. The Investigation of Impermanence Theory
Buddhist dictionary: Manual of Buddhist terms and doctrines defines aniccā ‘Impermanent’as : “Impermanence of things is the rising, passing and changing of things, or the disappearance of things that have become or arisen. The meaning is that these things never persist in the same way, but that they are vanishing dissolving from moment to moment.”227
Based on Buddhist views, the impermanent (Aniccā)228 doctrine is one of the Three Marks of Existence (Tilakkhaṇa), namely: impermanence (Aniccā), unsatisfactoriness or suffering (Dukkha), and non-self or egolessness (Anattā). In the Mahāyāna Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra, four characteristics are described instead of three, namely: impermanence (Anityākāra), suffering (Duḥkhākāra), emptiness (Śūnyākāra), selflessness (Anātmākāra)229. We can find the philosophy of Aniccā in the doctrine of Tilakkhaṇa of Dhammapada from verses 277-9230.
- Nyanatiloka, 1980, p. 36
228 Damien, 2003, p. 15
- Three marks of existence, 2023
- “Maggavagga: The Path” (Dhp XX), translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu, 2013
We also can find this theory in many canons of five Nikāyas of
Theravāda Buddhism and Mahāyāna Sūtras.
We can search online and get more information about this doctrine, especially at the website addresses:
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impermanence
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence
- https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/various/ html
.etc.
According to several Buddhist scholars writing about the law of impermanence, they often refer to suffering, emptiness, and non-self. However, Buddha said: Any form of all things (material or mental) created in the impermanent world will not exist for long.231 They can be changed for many reasons and will decay, then disappear.
In which they are continually changing, arising, and then disappearing. These others always replace all phenomena. They depend on each other to exist at present and in the future. Therefore, the theory of impermanence has a close connection with the philosophy of dependence arising:
This will arise, that will occur; the other appears, then another will arise; Or after this one is destroyed, the other will be destroyed as well; or the other, after it is destroyed, all other related to this matter will be eliminated, too; or this one after destruction, disappears, then arise to form another. Alternatively, when this is after birth, which is a cause, make another destroy because they cannot exist in tandem.
“Impermanence of things is the rising， passing, and changing or the disappearance of things that have become or arisen. The meaning is that these things never persist in the same way， but
- “Atthakanagara Sutta: To the Man from Atthakanagara” (MN 52), translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu, 2013
they are vanishing and dissolving momentarily”.232
When we reach the explanation of this meaning, we can understand the concept of impermanence in the expanded connotations of this law in the universe. We should not only understand it with little explanation in four periods of physical: the rising, passing, and changing of things, decay, and cessation of physical or whatever is born that will undoubtedly change over time and destroy.
Impermanence Law can be expressed in two catalogs: material or mental.
It exists in three aspects such as 1) Impermanent body, 2) Impermanent mentality, and 3) Impermanent circumstances.
- The impermanent body has four periods: birth, old age, disease (sickness), and death.
- The impermanent mentality has four periods: form mentality, survive, in transition, disappear
- Impermanent circumstances have four periods: form the things, survive, decay gradually, disappear
When faced with the change of material and mental, we will
see there are three cases occur objectively: 1) Suffering, 2) Happy,
- Not miserable, nor happy
- Human suffering is divided into the following eight groups of suffering233:
- The Suffering of Birth
- The suffering of old
- The suffering of Disease (sickness).
- The suffering of
- Suffering from separation from loved ones (parting with
- Nyanatiloka, 1980, pp. 36-37
- Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta: Setting the Wheel of Dhamma in Motion” (SN 11), translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu, 2013
what we love).
- Suffering due to meeting with the uncongenial (meeting
with what we hate)
- Suffering due to unfulfilled wishes (unattained aims).
- Suffering due to the raging aggregates (all the ills of the five skandhas).
- Happy emotion can be divided into three aspects:
- The psychological feeling of happiness depends on external factors that create them from the sense of the body, thoughts, and situation
- The psychological sense of happiness does not depend on external factors such as the body’s feelings, thoughts, and They come from practicing meditation and have it. It is called self-control, happiness from within your pure mind.
- Living happily and knowing enough, moderation in eating, sleeping, accepting the context of living in the present, no regrets, no sadness, no clinging to what has passed in the past
- Not miserable nor happy
- The natural transformation of material and the universe through time and time; no sense of human feeling appears inside them.
- The state of narcosis and the loss of people’s
- The state of giving up all sensations of thought and body during deep meditation.
Although we know that everything is impermanent, constantly changing, it is just like the water of a river, the flow of a stream continually changing with every moment,234 but if we persist, cling, crave something that had happened in the past. We do not accept
- The famous saying of Heraclitus: “No man ever steps in the same river
twice”, see: https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/heraclitus_107157
the result in the present situation in which we have it; whether it is as we want or not as we want it, we will indeed feel sadness, sorrow, disappointment, and suffering.
The Buddha taught that the desire, the clinging is the root of all harmful minds, just like a piece of bone with a bit of blood, like a bundle of embers (torches), borrowed shoulder. etc. It only gives us more suffering, sorrow, and sadness more and more; the calamity resulting from it will add even more if we persevere in clinging to them, not letting go.235
Buddha’s teachings said suffering, sorrow, despair, depression, and loss of faith in life. All of them belong spiritually based on greed and grasp at something. If not, as we wish, then we will be angry, disappointed, and sad about these problems that happened in the past, and they have been happening and will happen in our lives.
Therefore, when we mention suffering, we can immediately think of Eight categories of suffering that Buddha had always said in his teaching.
All kinds of suffering have affected the physical body and mind of all human beings and sentient beings. According to the defilements of greed, hatred, craving, and clinging to human beings and sentient beings, they will have different suffering emotions. The soul in that body receives happiness or suffering; Hindu doctrine calls it an infinite soul. Still, in Buddhism, Buddha did not accept the philosophy of a permanent soul in the body.
But the Buddha only accepted it as Citta, Mana, and Vijñāna (mind, thought, perception) are aware of temporary sensory consciousness of joy, wrath, craving, stinging, happiness, or suffering caused by conditions. So, they work as the stream of consciousness of six.
Some scholars who understand the law of impermanence must understand the meaning of Buddha’s teachings. They have argued against Buddhism, not accepting the philosophy: of what
- Cowell, B. (editor); Francis Cowell (HT (translator); & Neil, RA
(translator)), 1897, pp. 132-133
impermanence is suffering. They make some theories that say: plants, mountains, rivers, and everything in the universe obey the law of impermanence, but it is nothing miserable. Why are they not suffering? Because there is no feeling of happiness or suffering in them.
According to the website wikipedia.org, it says that in Hindu philosophy also accepts the law of impermanence: “Buddhism and Hinduism share the doctrine of Anicca or Anitya, that is nothing eld, everything is in a constant state of change”236 but do not accept the anatta (non-soul) philosophy. Still, they get the atman (soul) philosophy. They believe there is an entity to enjoy happiness or suffer; this soul always remains, not destroyed.
In Theravada tradition, it said: what is impermanent is suffering, what is impermanent, that is, the meaning of its nature is non-self; it exists due to the combination of many factors. This theory is called the theory of causation (paṭiccasamuppāda), commonly translated as dependent origination or dependent arising. This theory is a fundamental principle in Buddhist teachings, which states that all dhamma (“phenomena”) appear in dependence upon other dharmas: “If this exists, that exists; if this ceases to exist, that also ceases to exist”237.
Everything arises from conditions, and not being spontaneous and self-contained has no separate and independent nature. Therefore, all phenomena in the world do not have a permanent existence in the same shape, but this is the transformation process from one form to another, depending on the environment in which they exist.
In the Sutta, the Buddha said the philosophy of impermanence implies this meaning. Therefore, once mentioning suffering, Buddha also mentioned impermanence. There is always an implication of an interactive element of craving, attachment, anger, ignorance, and afflictions, which lead people to suffer. When faced
- Impermanence, 2023
- Pratītyasamutpāda, 2023
with impermanent cases, accept the current situation if we do not crave affection and negativity and always have a happy mind. We will have no anger, sadness, suffering, or regret with some past happens. Even though the circumstances we exist in are constantly changing.
- Therefore, in the face of the impermanence of the mind and the situation or the body, people have three kinds of emotion: happy and suffering and not both - no sorrow and no But in the case of not feeling grief, there are 2 cases: 1) The changes that arise and pass away, the constant change of nature of all physical phenomena, has nothing to do with the perception of the consciousness, 2) The autonomy of the mind, not being dominated by the biological material, the circumstances, the body.
No mental factors are involved when we only talk about material things. Precisely because there is no spiritual element to interfere, it is like a corpse of a human; when the warmth has left the body, there is no feeling of the eyes, hands, nose, tongue, or body anymore. The same as the inanimate objects of mountains, trees, earth, rocks, water, wind, fire, or the tiny cells, atoms, molecules, etc. that make up a material. Although everything of phenomenal physical matter continually changes. They do not have the feeling of suffering or happiness. For this reason, some philosophers of dialectical materialism do not accept the concept of “What is impermanent to suffering.”
This argument is correct but not exhaustive of the theory of Buddha’s teachings. In these teachings, Buddha taught not only this impermanent theory but also introduced to people some different concepts relative to this theory.
Suppose we need to understand what Buddha wanted to teach. If we only use this concept to evaluate the entire teaching of the Buddha, that is, we are wrong. It is like a person who takes one part of an elephant’s leg, tail, or head of an elephant, but we state that it is the whole elephant’s
body. That is a one-sided standpoint, which is a wrong view, wrong thought, persisted in that problem, could not let go, always think our investigation is correct, other thinking are false. This one-sided standpoint is different from the insight, not having a vision widely when considering some concepts of an event.
- When there is the feeling element of the spirit interfering with those impermanent of all things, whenever our mind is not attached, and not possess the sensation, and is not dominated by the external circumstances and the body, we always are in the self-control of the six senses, and having the enjoyment of the deep bliss of meditation, get over the influencing factors to us. Therefore, we accept the present life as pure; we will have no sorrow or suffering and live
These matters are complex cases for ordinary people because people live dependent on emotions. In good situations, people feel happy; instead, in dire situations, they fall sad; or when it has a pleasant feeling, they like it; on the contrary, in unpleasant feelings, they will be distraught when harmed in body or mind. Alternatively, something beneficial to them makes people happy; something detrimental to people will generate hatred and resentment.
Nevertheless, it will be easy for practitioners to practice Buddha’s teachings. There were, and will be, many practitioners in Buddhism and other religions that can overcome the suffering of body and mind in the past, present, and future. They have achieved or will achieve the unwavering response while facing the change of impermanence of situations and body and mind when they correctly practice the Dharma taught by the Buddha or other Great Masters of their religion.
We are the same, and we can do it; we can control any
situations we face as unpleasant feelings - the pleasant feeling of body, mind or prosperity - decline, praise - disparagement, getting something and losing something. etc.
III. The Application of the impermanent theory to improve the positive conduct of lifestyle
All phenomena of constant physical, mental, and situational change are called the aniccā doctrine. Furthermore, community social behavior, human ideas, and senses constantly change from time to time. This natural influence on life and ethics thought of humans. It can quickly transform the community’s social behavior between each people with different circumstances of ethical conduct or lousy behavior, hate or love, compliment or decry, help or harm each other, etc.
From that, they dominate us and produce feelings of sadness
- joy, happiness, and Therefore, people’s mentality constantly changes in each moment; each time is different.
Whenever they feel loved and like to take care of, they will help each other. Unfortunately, however, sometimes jealousy and hatred appear, or because of greed, the desire that loses the reason of human nature, one can harm the other.
However, we use our wisdom to check all situations with different aspects. In that case, we will get many benefits from the constant change in each case and help us broaden our clear vision and increase some experiences about the events in the world we are facing.
We should know that whatever happens in this life has its causes, but we probably do not know those reasons. For example, if someone harms us and causes hatred against us, there are some causes for it. Therefore, in this case, based on the knowledge of impermanent law, we should not be in a hurry to hate those who have unintentionally or intentionally harmed us. Instead, we should proactively apply the law of impermanence to transform the enemy’s mentality by actively sowing good deeds to them. That way can turn bad karma between them and us into good kamma and make this good karma develop well in the future. In this way, we can gradually improve our excellent relationship with them and progressively reduce the resentment and hatred between us with them. With time and the exemplary conduct, we made, we can convert them from hate to love, from enemy to friend, from the harmer to become helper.
Suddenly, I remembered that Dhammapada said:
“For hatred does not cease by hatred at any time: hatred ceases by love, this is an old rule. The world does not know that we must all come to an end here; but those who know it, their quarrels cease at once..”238
In these verses, everyone may know about the truth, a person who is emotionally minded and full of hatred; cannot take feelings of aversion to dispel or diminish the hatred of others. It looks like the torch whenever this torch burns big, and when we put it near other torches, it only makes fire through the torch quickly. This torch cannot reduce or extinguish another torch. This is not possible.
Human anger, sadness, and resentment can only be soothed by love, compassion caring for them, understanding, and sympathy for them, and we are ready to help them when they need us or when they encounter difficulties in life; no one helps them; they need us to help them with love, understanding, and sympathy.
Suppose we are courageous to alleviate others’ anger or sadness about ourselves or someone, but we do not know the causes of this anger, and neither are we understand their temperament; how can we sympathize with them and initiate compassion in the right way and know how to resolve and encourage them to alleviate their sadness and anger in a manner effective.
Similarly, we need the rain of compassion, love, and understanding and compassion to be able to approach, comfort, and ease the sadness of those who are angry and sad.
- Sacred Books of the East, 10: The Dhammapada and Sutta Nipata, Translated from pāli by Max Müller and Max Fausböll, 1881, p. 5
According to the gaze of Buddhism, we know well that all things are impermanent. Everything can change239, whether it is a good thing or a bad thing. So is human anger, which can be caused by something, and according to the law of impermanence, the anger and sadness will cool down gradually over time and disappear.
Besides, from the view of impermanent philosophy, we know that life’s circumstances are constantly changing; sometimes, our lives are prosperous and wealthy, having an unfortunate case leading to a failed business resulting in bankruptcy and poverty. The body is the same, sometimes they are very healthy, but sometimes the body becomes weak because of some diseases. Although, in behavioral life, too, sometimes we can be independent and turn things around by our abilities, we will never need anyone to help. Nevertheless, life is impermanent; everything may be changed.240 Still, sometimes we will be helpless, unable to help ourselves, including personal hygiene, to serve ourselves because, at that time, we were seriously ill in difficulty, and people may contact us. At that time, we appreciate all the help of others. Because in this situation, we desperately need the help of someone who is concerned about us. So am I, so are you, and so is everyone.
So, based on our experience and a positive view of the law of impermanence, we can say:
- One may be misbehaving to us today, which does not mean to say they will continue to be misbehaving to us tomorrow if we can convert the lousy karma between them and us.
- Moreover, yet, we can have a good life with all the beautiful materials, healthy and lucky today, does not mean we will be good We should not think that we will not need help from others in the future. Therefore, we need to be kind to people, so that whenever we fall into an unfortunate case with an accident or sickness, people will help us.
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239 Bodhi, 2000, p. 282
240 Bodhi, 2000, p. 282
References
- “Atthakanagara Sutta: To the Man from Atthakanagara” (MN 52), translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. (2013, November 30). Retrieved from Access to Insight (BCBS Edition): http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/ mn/mn.052.than.html
- “Maggavagga: The Path” (Dhp XX), translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. (2013, November 30). Retrieved from Access to Insight (BCBS Edition): http:// accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/dhp/dhp.20.than.html
- Bodhi, (2000). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha
: A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya. (B. Bodhi, Trans.) Boston, USA: Wisdom Publications.
- Cowell, B. (editor); Francis Cowell (HT (translator); & Neil, RA (translator)). (1897). The Jataka (vol. 3). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Damien, (2003). A Dictionary of Buddhism. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta: Setting the Wheel of Dhamma in Motion” (SN 56.11), translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. (2013, November 30). Retrieved from Access to Insight (BCBS Edition): https://w accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn56/sn56.011.than.html
- (2023, April 08). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impermanence
- Pratītyasamutpāda. (2023, May 10). Retrieved from In Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da
- Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 10: The Dhammapada and Sutta Nipata, Translated from pāli by Max Müller and Max Fausböll. (1881). The Clarendon Press.
- Three marks of (2023, April 12). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_marks_
of_existence
- Nyanatiloka. (1980, March). Buddhist dictionary: Manual of Buddhist terms and doctrines (4th Edition). (V. Nyanatiloka, Editor, & Buddhist Publication Society) Retrieved 05 03, 2023, from The Buddhist eLibrary: https://www.buddhistelibrary.org/buddhism-online/e- books/palidictionary.pdf
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THE BUDDHA’S MEANINGFUL TEACHINGS ON GRATITUDE TO ONE’S PARENTS IN SUTTA PITAKA
Bhikṣuṇī TN Vien Nhuan (Pham Thi Kim Trinh)
Nālandā University, Rajgir, Bihar, Nalanda 803116, India
|
ABSTRACT
t is difficult to find people in this world who are grateful
for kindful actions done by others.241 The Blessed One praised those who are both grateful as being persons of integrity and civilization. In particular, for the aspects of appreciation and gratitude to one’s parents, the Great Master placed a strong emphasis several times in the Sutta Pitaka that repaying their parents’ kindness and compassion are evident moral responsibilities of every child as well as wholesome and useful methods to get blessings for oneself.
Keywords: Buddha, gratitude, Sutta, Pitaka, etc.,...
INTRODUCTION
It is difficult to determine exactly who may have acted as a person’s mother or father in previous incarnations because
- AN 2:118; Dullabhā Sutta: Hard to Find; trans; Bhikkhu, Thanissaro;
(USA: Ca, 2017: 511), p. 29.
humans exist in the universe due to the cycle of rebirth. The truth was witnessed and recognized by the Great Master through his transcendental wisdom. Even so, during the process of one’s existence in the cycle of birth and death in innumerable lives, anyone could have been a mother or father to a person. In addition, the Buddha reminded everyone in the world that the quantity of water contained in four oceans is less than the amount of water from a mother’s milk stream which a person has consumed during one’s innumerable eons in the life cycle.242 Therefore, it can be said that the intention behind his illustrious lectures collected in Sutta Pitaka is to convey to future generations the importance and benefits of appreciation and gratefulness for parents’ limitless merit.243 In other words, filial piety is considered the most fundamental moral foundation for humans, and it is also one of the four good blessings that a Buddhist disciple must perform to fulfill the following talk given by the Lord: “Sukha matteyya loke. Atho petteyyata sukha. Sukha samannata loke. Atho brahmannata sukha”.244
Based on the background of previous research related to the study, the researcher will discuss the meanings of Buddha’s early teachings on filial piety, children’s duties to parents, and the benefits of the practice of filial piety. The purpose of the study, for oneself, is a good condition to look back, observe and practice the Buddha’s meaningful talks of gratitude to parents. Moreover, the researcher also hopes everyone especially the youth can understand clearly children’s rights and duties to parents. From there, everybody always does wholesome speeches and actions with parents to establish and maintain a harmonious happy family
- S 15.3; Anamatagga Saṃyutta: Tears; trans, Bhikkhu, Bodhi, (USA: Wisdom Publications, 2000), p. 653
- 15.4; Mother’s Milk, trans, Bhikkhu, Bodhi, (USA: Wisdom Publications, 2000), p. 653.
- Dhp, 332; by Buddharakkhita, Acharya; (Sri Lanka: Buddhist
Publication Society, 1985), p.73.
“In this world, good it is to serve one’s mother, good it is to serve one’s
father, good it is to serve the monks, and good it is to serve holy men” life according to the Buddha’s teachings.
1. The Buddha’s meaningful teachings on gratitude to one’s
parent
1.1. The practice of filial piety as a sacred duty
Gratitude (Pali: kataññu) is positively repaying for what have done by others. Based on the moral value of gratitude and mindfulness, the Great Master emphasizes in particular gratitude to parents. In Sutta Pitaka, repaying parents’ gratitude for deep and sacred birth and nourishment was mentioned by the Buddha many times as an obvious moral duty and responsibility of every child.
The merit of one’s parents was discussed by the Lord in the Kataññu Sutta (Discourse on Knowing the Debts, AN 2:31–32). This is the most important and influential discourse on showing thanks to one’s parents that is included in the Aṅguttara Nikāya. At the beginning of the text, the Buddha makes some observations about the differences between those who lack integrity and people who have integrity. In his line of thinking, gratefulness, and thankfulness are two attributes of a person of integrity, and a civilized person. On the other hand, one who lacks integrity does not possess the attributes of gratefulness and appreciation. In special, in this text, the Buddha lauded the limitless tremendous merit of parents by stating that parents are two persons who are hard to repay because of the sacrifices they have made for their children in the form of providing care, nourishment, and direction in this world.245
The Lord also elaborated on these wonderful qualities of one’s parents in the Sigālaka Sutta (Advice to Lay People, DN 31)246, which can be found in the Pāḷi canon. The great compassion that parents have for their children is shown in the scripture by the
- AN 2:31-32; Kataññu Sutta: Discourse on Knowing the Debts; trans,
Bhikkhu, Thanissaro, (USA: Ca, 2017: 511), p.17.
- DN 31; Sigālaka Sutta: Advice to Lay People; trans,Maurice, Walse, Boston: Wisdom Publication, in 1995, p.467.
Blessed One through the five good deeds that follow: first, protecting their children from harm; second, encouraging their children to earn merits by performing good deeds; third, passing on to their children important life lessons; fourth, setting up their children in happy marriages; and fifth, passing down their inherited wealth to their offspring. Therefore, it can be said that the unfailing love that parents have for their offspring is the source of these selfless acts that they perform for their offspring.
In addition, the Buddha honored parents as Brahm, first instructors, and gift-worthy in a different sutta called the Sabrahmā Sutta247. In this sutta, the Buddha taught everyone to respect and behave one’s parents reversibly by imparting the following practical instructions.
According to the narrative, the Buddha bestowed the title ‘Brahma’ upon one’s parents because they possessed the ‘Four divine abidings’ or “Four boundless states” (Appamañña)248 also referred to as Brahmavihāras.249 The characteristics of loving- kindness, compassion, sympathetic delight, and equanimity are included in this category. In particular, according to the teachings of the Buddha, a monk’s wealth consists of these virtuous traits250.
Loving-kindness is an active kind of goodwill towards all.251 It means having unconditional, limitless, and altruistic love for the well-being and contentment of all sentient beings in the world. When a parent provides food and care for their child, they do so
- AN 4.63; Sabrahmā Sutta: With Brahmā; trans, Bhikkhu Bodhi, (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2012), 453.
- DN 33; Sangīti Sutta: The Chanting Together; trans, Maurice, Walse, (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1995), 489.
- Ari Ubeysekara, Four Divine Abodes (brahma viharas) in Theravada Buddhism (Drarisworld, February 23, 2020), accessed March 13th, 2022, https:// wordpress.com/2020/02/23/four-divine-abodes-brahma-viharas-in- theravada-buddhism/
- 26; Cakkavati Sīhanāda; trans, Maurice, Walse, (Boston: Wisdom
Publication, 1995), p. 405.
- Peter, Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History, and Practices (Cambridge University Press, 2012), p.p 154-326.
out of unconditional love for the child, without any expectation that the youngster will ever repay that love. The Buddha taught and inspired everyone to cultivate loving-kindness in the unique sermon on loving kindness known as the Karaniya Metta Sutta by comparing good quality to the analogy of a mother’s infinite love.252 In the Sutta, the Buddha emphasized that just as a mother is willing to sacrifice everything she has, including her own life, to ensure that her children have a happy and tranquil life, so too should a genuine practitioner cultivate an immeasurable mind for all sentient beings. As a result, people have traditionally believed that parents possess the heavenly trait of loving-kindness.
Compassion comes from loving-kindness, “It is identifying the suffering of others as one’s own.” 253 A person who possesses the holy attribute always exhibits empathy for the strain and anguish of others as though it were their situation. In a typical scenario, parents show their concern for their children’s well-being by empathizing with, comprehending, and sharing the challenges that their children face during the course of their development. As a result, compassion is regarded as the second most admirable trait possessed by parents.
Sympathetic joy is a person possesses the admirable trait of sympathetic delight when they rejoice in the success, happiness, and prosperity of others in the same way that they would rejoice in their own.254 The existence of this phenomenon demonstrates that parents have a natural desire to encourage their children to engage in good activities and abstain from engaging in negative deeds. They take pleasure in their children’s happiness and achievements, and they are especially appreciative of the positive things that their children have accomplished. As a result, it has been claimed
- Sn 8 Karaniya Metta Sutta: The Discourse on Loving-kindness, the Book of the Protection; trans; Piyadassi Thera, (Sri Lanka: The Buddhist Publication Society, 1999), p.36.
- Peter, Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History, and Practices (Cambridge University Press, 2012), p.p 154-326.
- Merv Fowler, Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Sussex Academic
Press, 1999), 60–62, ISBN 978-1-898723-66-0. that parents can say that they possess the heavenly attribute of empathetic delight.
Equanimity is the ability to maintain a balanced and tranquil state of mind despite the roller-coaster nature of one’s life experiences255. It indicates that a person who possesses the quality of equanimity can maintain tranquility in any life scenario even when that person meets plenty of issues in one’s life; on the other hand, a person who lacks this quality tends to respond negatively to vicissitudes that occur in their lives. Equanimity is a virtuous trait in parents because it demonstrates that regardless of whether their child is beautiful or ugly, nice or bad, successful or unsuccessful, their parents are glad to embrace and defend their children with a love that is both unconditional and tolerant. Equanimity is a noble quality in parents.
From the moment their child is born, parents nurture and devote their virtuous characteristics to their children, and this process continues until the end of their life. From the time a woman is pregnant until she gives birth, mothers always appreciate and care for their children diligently and thoughtfully, and they do it without complaining. Because of the baby’s growth and development inside the mother’s womb, the mother goes through a great deal of suffering, anguish, and anxiety during the period that she is pregnant. In addition, up until the point in time when she is making preparations to give birth, she strives to endure a great deal of pain, triumph over it, and remain brave in the face of any threats at any time. Despite this, a mother is willing to give up her life to give birth to her kid. At that time, if the process of her birthing goes smoothly, she will be safe without being uninjured or hazardous, and her kid will also be born in safety and peace. If the process does not go well, however, neither of them will be safe. If this is not the case, she will almost certainly endure a great deal of agony at the time that she is giving birth. In addition, after the delivery of her kid, the mother continues to nurture and care for her cherished infant by
- An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History, and Practices, 154,
326
giving him or her every drop of her delicious milk. Unconditional love, care, and support for their children’s various requirements are always provided by parents for their offspring right up to the moment they become adults. Especially because they are parents, they are willing to give up everything they own, even when this includes their own life, to ensure the health and happiness of their child. As a result, according to the Buddha, children should show their parents respect, gratitude, and reciprocity since parents are priceless gifts that benefit everyone in the world.
Every single mother and father on the face of the earth has the same basic goal: they want their children to grow up to be good individuals who contribute positively to their families and communities. Therefore, parents must instill in their offspring the values that it is important to steer clear of bad influences, work hard at one’s job, honor one’s grandparents and parents, and get along well with one’s children. The love that parents have for their children is unending, and they tend to their children’s requirements without asking for anything in return from them. Aside from that, parents are there for their children through the happy and the sad times, and they offer sound guidance at the appropriate times to teach their children how to deal with the ups and downs of life. In addition, parents demonstrate concern for their children’s intellectual development by enrolling them in school and continuing to advise and assist them throughout the duration of their academic careers. Youngster views their parents as exemplary members of the family as well as members of society since they have been taught the right behavior by their parents. Because of this, the Lord regarded parents as the most important educators in the lives of their children.
The Buddha gave the essential moral discourses that were described above to highlight the merit that parents have towards their children since they provide unconditional love and support for all of their children’s needs without expecting any kind of payment in return from their children. Furthermore, the purpose of these teachings that were revealed by the Blessed One was to clarify the reason why a kid is required to show gratefulness and appreciation to one’s parents, as well as to defend the sacred significance of children’s filial devotion to their parents. Furthermore, according to the teaching that the Buddha imparts in the text, there is no way for anyone to make up for the merits that were bestowed upon them by their parents. This is because parents do endless and limitless good actions for their children, such as caring for them, providing for them, and guiding them into this world. As a result, the Buddha honored one’s parents as Brahm, the first teacher, and as worthy recipients of gifts.
Parents devote their entire lives to protecting and providing for their children in every way possible out of unconditional love for them. Therefore, in the profound discourse that was given the term Sacrifice (AN 7:47)256, the Blessed One provided treasured utterances to teach about the thankfulness that should be shown by parents for their offspring. After a Brahmin had asked the Lord about a sacrifice ritual that involved killing many bulls and many other animals, he taught the Brahmin that parents, family members, and religious people are three real kinds of fire that a person should take care of, pay homage to, and worship throughout one’s life. This occurred after the Brahmin had asked the Lord about the ritual of killing many bulls and many other animals. Of these, in particular, he advocated that every kid should honor their parents as the first of four fires that should be loved and worshipped. This was to replace the practice of worshipping the actual fire. Because according to the thinking of the Buddha, throughout their lives, parents always feed and serve the needs of their children, and because of this, they are willing to sacrifice all and everything, including their own lives, to ensure the happiness, welfare, and prosperity of their children. After gaining an understanding of the profound lessons that the Buddha had to offer, the Brahmin decided to let five hundred bulls and other animals live.
- AN 7:47; Sacrifice, trans, Bhikkhu Bodhi, (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2012), p.1030.
As the most fundamental obligation of a filial child, showing proper deference to one’s parents is an absolute necessity. In point of fact, in a different sutta known as Licchavi Youths257 (AN 5.58), the Lord instructed a monk by the name of Mahanama on the five characteristics of a clansman who owns one’s riches in a way that is moral and ethical. He stated that with one’s righteous wealth, a clansman shows respect and support for his parents first, other family members including ‘his wife and children, slaves, workers, and servants’ in the second position, ‘his neighbors and business partners’ in the third position, the oblational deities in the fourth position, and ascetics and Brahmins in the final position. Among these virtues, the Great Master lauded paying honor to one’s parents and repaying them with one’s righteous wealth as the first and greatest of five qualities of a clansman, using the following significant words to describe how this should be done:
Parents are the most significant members of a family since they are necessary for the growth and development of a child’s body and mind. They perform the most important function. They adore their child without conditions and attend to all of their needs without expecting anything in return from their offspring. Especially because they are parents, they are willing to give up everything they own, even when this includes their own life, to ensure the health and happiness of their child. As a result, it should not come as a surprise that the Buddha communicated these significant teachings of thoughtfulness and thanks to parents, as well as reminding children that showing gratitude to their parents is a natural moral obligation of a filial person.
1.2. The practice of filial piety as a practical method to make merit
It was considered not just a child’s moral responsibility but also a good means to make merit for oneself in the early Buddhist tradition that children should express thanks to their parents. The Great Master praised showing gratitude to one’s parents as
- AN 5.58; Licchavi Youths, trans, Bhikkhu Bodhi, (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2012), p. 690. excellent and virtuous conduct in several unique instances taken from the Sutta Pitaka.
There was a narrative that was told in the Maha Mangala Sutta258 (Sn 2.4) about the many gifts that were bestowed upon a human being. According to the teachings, while the Great Master was staying at the Jetavana monastery, a deva came down to pay him a visit to inquire about the things in this world that could legitimately be deemed to be blessings. In response to his question, the Blessed One gave a sermon in which he listed thirty-eight blessings in the universe that, if followed, would ensure a person’s prosperity and success in both this life and the next. The Buddha taught the fact that, of all these wonderful blessings, providing for one’s parents was the greatest blessing, and that it was something that everyone should do to earn merit for themselves. In point of fact, according to the scripture, the Buddha imparted the following wisdom to the devas
A treatise titled Vatapada Sutta (The Vows) was written by the Great Master and referred to as “The Vows.” In this literature, the Great Master explained that serving one’s parents is the first of seven noble vows that Sakka made when he was a human. During the course of the conversation, the Buddha discussed seven positive deeds that Sakka had performed in a previous existence. When he was a human, he carried out seven acts of virtue. These included honoring one’s parents, showing respect for one’s family’s elders, speaking well of others, refraining from saying ill of others, not engaging in slanderous speech, telling the truth, and not being angry.259 It is generally agreed that showing respect for one’s parents is the most important of these moral deeds. As a reward for his good deeds, he was reborn in the heaven of the Tavatimsa260
- Sn 2.4; Maṅgala Sutta: Discourse on Blessings, the Book of the Protection; trans, Piyadassi Thera, (Sri Lanka: The Buddhist Publication Society, 1999), p. 29.
- SN 11; The Vows, trans, Bhikkhu, Bodhi, (USA: Wisdom Publications, 2000), p. 329.
- Keown, Damien, A Dictionary of Buddhism (London: OUP Oxford,
2004), accessed March 12th, 2023, https://www.oxfordreference.com/
(also known as the heaven of the 33 gods), where he eventually rose to the position of leader among the gods.261 As a result, we can assert that a person’s level of filial piety is at the very pinnacle of their list of virtuous merits.
The virtue of showing thanks to one’s parents was emphasized by the Enlightened One in the Mātuposaka Sutta (the Mother Supporter)262, which may be found in the Pali canon. In the sutta, a Brahmin who maintained his religious observance by traveling from person to person in search of alms paid a visit to the Buddha while he was on one of his alms rounds. He had come to inquire with the Buddha about whether or not he would be able to provide for his family by giving them alms food that he had received righteously from householders. After giving serious consideration to his query, the Buddha responded by telling him that because he had provided his family with alms food, he had fulfilled his responsibility to his parents appropriately. He may earn a great deal of merit for himself by following the path of action. In addition, the Buddha stated, to reinforce the belief of those who always practice filial piety to parents, that anyone who does such gratefulness to one’s parents is always praised by wise men at present, and that after death, the person will be reborn in the good realm of gods out of wholesome things done. This was said to strengthen the belief of those who always practice filial piety to parents.
Parents are constantly present next to their children, but they do not speak to them to provide care, protection, and mental and emotional support for them. Parents often sacrifice their youth, health, and financial security to provide the best possible upbringing for their cherished children. Parents are their children’s first and most important teachers, instructing them in everything from the fundamentals of life to the most important values and helping
display/10.1093/acref/9780198605607.001.0001/acref-9780198605607.
- SN 11; The Vows, trans, Bhikkhu, Bodhi (USA: Wisdom Publications, 2000), p. 329.
- SN 19; The Mother Supporter, trans, Bhikkhu Bodhi, (USA: Wisdom Publications, 2000), p. 277.
them develop into fully formed adults. Even if their parents may consider their sons and daughters to be adults, in their eyes, they are still children who need love and protection daily. Parents show their children how to walk, talk, and eat with undying devotion and unending patience as they guide their children through the early stages of their lives. In particular, at the point in a child’s life when they first start interacting with new things and gaining new knowledge, parents are the ones who teach their children other survival and developmental skills. In addition, it is common for a mother and a father to instruct their children on how to interact with other people tactfully and how to communicate with others in a way that promotes harmony. The actions of their children are treasured by their parents, and they watch their children’s every move without speaking. When confronted with challenges in life, they provide their children with encouragement and comfort. No matter how difficult and unhappy their lives are, parents will always offer their children the greatest conditions possible and do everything in their power to assist them since the joy and contentment of their children are what bring them the most delight. They educate their children not only on the skills necessary for basic survival but also on how to connect successfully with others both inside the family and in society as a whole. In this way, they set their children up for success in life. Repaying parents’ thankfulness is not only a simple responsibility of a kid to one’s parents but also a wholesome action, a practical means to grow morality and make merit for oneself from virtuous things done, the Great Master emphasized many times in certain unique scripture sources. This is because the Great Master emphasized that repaying parents’ gratitude is not just a simple responsibility of a child to one’s parents.
2. The Buddha’s practical messages on children’s duties to parents
A child’s responsibilities to one’s parents in the physical life
The concept of gratitude is a fundamental moral quality of humans in the world. In Buddhism, gratitude in general, and gratefulness to one’s parents in particular, is a wholesome and truthful characteristic of a person of integrity and civility.263 Because parents dedicate everything they have including their own lives to their children to wish their children to live and grow up in peace, happiness, welfare, and success. Hence, first of all, materially, a child’s duties in a family, under the Buddha’s advice, is to have to pay attention, care for, and serve all physical needs of one’s parents to repay partially their gratitude for birth and upbringing. The Great Master’s meaningful teachings of returning gratitude to parents have been found in some special scriptural sources in Sutta Pitaka.
At first, the physical support to parents which has been thought to be an important duty of a filial in a family was found in Sigālaka Sutta (Advice to Lay People, DN 31) of Dīgha Nikāya. In the long discourse, the Blessed One gave the following meaningful advice:
“There are five ways in which a son should minister to his mother and father in the eastern direction. He should think: Having been supported by them, I will support them. I will perform their duties for them. I will keep up the family tradition. I will be worthy of my heritage. After my parents, I will distribute gifts on their behalf.”264
According to the Buddha’s teaching in Sigālaka Sutta, in the relationship between parents and children denoted under the form of paying home in the East, a child should take care of and respect one’s parent by doing five following obligations: (1). Supporting the parents, (2). Carrying out the parents’ duties. (3). Upholding family traditions and lineage, (4). Acting in such a way as to be worthy of their inheritance, (5). Offering alms in honor of their departed relatives.
Supporting their parents in the first obligation given in the text
should be paid attention to as a wonderful blessing and a great
- Bhikkhu, Thanissaro, trans, Kataññu suttas, AN 2:31-32 (USA: Ca,
2017: 511), 17-18
- Maurice, Walse, trans, Sigālaka Sutta: Advice to Lay People, DN 31
(Boston: Wisdom Publication, 1995), 467
privilege spent for all children in the world. 265 In a family, a child should do duties to one’s parents by paying respect, taking care of, and trying to understand to support devotedly and timely all necessary and truthful needs of parents within one’s ability. He should not hesitate to meet anything that one’s parents need for his parents’ health, peace, and happiness. Especially, materially supporting one’s parents becomes an important responsibility in case of parents’ sickness or weakness of old age.
In the physical obligations to parents, the first and second duties mentioned in Sigālaka Sutta are the best and most important duties of a child in the world to show one’s filial piety to parents who have devoted all things they have including their own lives for their children’s peace, happiness, and success. Serving these physical things of a filial child to parents used to be reminded in another discourse called Sabrahmā Sutta (With Brahmā, AN 4.63). In the sermon, the Buddha honored parents as Brahma, first teachers and worthy gifts for their great compassion and scarification to children. Hence, the Great Master advised a wise child should venerate and treat one’s parents with honor. In physical life, he mentioned, “Tasmā hi ne namasseyya, sakkareyya ca paṇḍito; Annena atha pānena,vatthena sayanena ca; Ucchādanena nhāpanena, pādānaṁ dhovanena ca.”266
The third duty of a child to one’s parents in Sigālaka Sutta is to uphold family traditions and lineage. It means that a child should inherit and promote the good deeds that one’s parents have done and are doing to uphold the good fame for one’s parents and family. For example, if parents are making merits by actively doing donations or charities, actively the children should carry forward the legacy. This is also a necessary and practical duty that every
- Piyadassi Thera, trans, Maṅgala Sutta: Discourse on Blessings, the Book of the Protection, Sn 2.4 (Sri Lanka: The Buddhist Publication Society, 1999), 29
- Bhikkhu Bodhi, trans, Sabrahmāka Sutta: With Brahmā, AN 4.63 (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 2012).
“One should serve them food and drink, with clothes and bedding, by massaging and bathing them, and by washing their feet.”
filial child should do for his parents to protect his reputation as
well as avoid bringing a bad name to his family and lineage.
Acting in such a way as to be worthy of their inheritance is the fourth duty of a child to one’s parent according to the Buddha’s teaching in the text above. In other words, children should act in a truthful way to be worthy of the inheritance left by parents and ancestors. It means that whatever property is inherited from parents and family, children need to protect and preserve carefully as well as make them more and more increased if possible.
Buddhism believes that a human does not only have a present life but also governs through the cycle of rebirth. Thus, a filial child has also been advised to take care of one’s parents for the rest of their life even after leaving this world. Especially, in early Buddhist thought given in the same text above, offering alms in honor of one’s parents and relatives passing away is one of the noble deeds and customs to recall and pay homage to parents’ great merits of birth, nourishment, and upbringing in the world. Normally, in the Buddhist tradition, after one’s parents and relatives passed away, a Buddhist disciple often does lots of wholesome things by offering alms-food to monks or giving many gifts to the poor to make merits for oneself and then transferring the result of the good deeds acquired to the departed ones.
A child’s responsibilities to one’s parents in the spiritual
life. Normally, children at the age of adulthood have been encouraged
to remember the merits of their parents. However, in early Buddhist texts, if children only perform their filial duties physically to their parents according to their capacity, they cannot repay their parent’s merits of raising and upbringing. In fact, in Kataññu Suttas (AN 2:31-32), the Great Master encouraged children to support their parents mentally besides repaying them through physical conduct (given above) by preaching the following valuable teachings:
“…But anyone who rouses his unbelieving mother and father settles and establishes them in conviction; rouses his unvirtuous
mother and father, settles and establishes them in virtue; rouses his stingy mother and father, settles and establishes them in generosity; rouses his foolish mother and father, settles & establishes them in discernment: To this extent, one pays and repays one’s mother and father.”267
The Buddha advised the children not to do any evil things for their parents because such unwholesome things bring harm to themselves. At the same time, their parents should also avoid the unwholesome path and enter the righteous path. In other words, a filial child in Buddhism is not only to provide parents with all material needs but also to place the goal towards the moral and intellectual life of oneself and one’s parents. The facts according to the Buddha’s teaching is that, besides taking care of and supporting parents materially, the children should direct their parents to develop their spiritual life by guiding them to cultivate and uphold virtues of faith (Saddhā), morality (Sīla), charity (Dāna), and wisdom (Paññā). In other words, in mental support, a child needs to build trust in one’s parents, guide them to avoid bad actions and do good deeds, give up the evil of greed, practice giving; and especially elude ignorance to gain wisdom. Only at that time, one can repay the gratitude of one’s parents.
Faith (Saddhā) here is the belief in the truth. It means not only the Buddha’s teaching (the Dhamma), but also the truth of life, which is true, good, and beautiful, without falsehood or unwholesomeness. In Buddhism, a Buddhist practices one’s virtue of faith which means putting one’s belief in teachings and practices preached by the Blessed One leading to a virtuous and wise life for oneself and others. Being a devout Buddhist follower, a person is advised to put one’s belief absolutely in the Triple Gem (The Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha). The Blessed One discovered and opened the noble path through his truthful teachings on the real nature of humans and all things leading to liberation for oneself and others. In Dīghajāṇu Sutta, the conviction was
- Bhikkhu, Thanissaro, trans, Kataññu suttas: Gratitude, AN 2:31-32
(USA: Ca, 2017: 511), 18.
preached by the Buddha as follows:
“And what does it mean to be consummate in conviction? There is a case where a disciple of the noble ones has conviction, and is convinced of the Tathagata’s Awakening: ‘Indeed, the Blessed One is worthy and rightly self-awakened, consummate in knowledge and conduct, well-gone, an expert about the world, unexcelled as a trainer for those people fit to be tamed, the Teacher of divine and human beings, awakened, blessed.’ This is called being consummate in conviction.”268
Being a truthful Buddhist child, a child should help one’s parents not only believe in the Triple Gems and good things in the world but also establish and uphold the virtue of truthfulness and kindness. The very faith is the motivation so that one’s parents actively do wholesome things and diligently give up unwholesome deeds leading to a peaceful and happy life for themselves and others.
The foundational morality for Buddhist lay devotees is the five precepts. In Dhammika Sutta (Sn 2.14), not taking life, not stealing, abstaining from sexual misconduct, not lying, and not using intoxicants are five positive ways to establish the morality (Sīla) of a lay follower under the Blessed One’s teachings.269 The foundational Buddhist lay-devotee rules were also mentioned in another text in Aṅguttara Nikāya as follows:
“And what does it mean to be consummate in virtue? There
- Bhikkhu, Thanissaro, trans, Dīghajāṇu Sutta: To Dīghajāṇu, AN 8:54
(USA: Ca, 2017: 511), 572
- John, D. Ireland, trans, Dhammika Sutta: Dhammika, Sn 2.14, PTS: Sn 376-378, 383-404, accessed March 24, 2023, https://www.accesstoinsight. org/tipitaka/kn/snp/snp.2.14.irel.html
“He should not kill a living being, nor cause it to be killed, nor should he incite another to kill... He should completely avoid theft. A wise man should avoid unchastity as (he would avoid falling into) a pit of glowing charcoal... Having entered a royal court or a company of people he should not speak lies. He should not speak lies (himself) nor incite others to do so. He should completely avoid falsehood. A layman who has chosen to practice this Dhamma should not indulge in the drinking of intoxicants.”
is a case where a disciple of the noble ones abstains from taking life, abstains from stealing, abstains from illicit sexual conduct, abstains from lying, and abstains from taking intoxicants that cause heedlessness. This is called being consummate in virtue.”270
Analyzing deeply and broadly, morality in Buddhism belongs to one of three parts in the Noble Eightfold Path in early Buddhist teachings. The Noble Eightfold path is called the Middle Path which consists of eight elements and is divided into three following parts: The first group is Wisdom (Paññā) involving the right view and right thought; the second one is Morality (Sīla) including right speech, right action, and right livelihood; the final one is Meditation (Samādhi) consisting of right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.271 Therefore, the virtue of a person who is walking on the Middle Path according to the Buddha’s viewpoint is based on the practice of right speech, right action, and right livelihood.
The second piece of practical advice in the above passage is a meaningful message to give up evil and do good. Being a devout Buddhist disciple and a filial child, one should advise his parents to take refuge in the Triple Gems by observing the three refuges and five precepts. In the case of deviation, one should advise the parents to do and maintain good deeds in terms of body, speech, and thoughts to bring peace, happiness, and well-being for themselves and others in their life this birth and afterward.
Dāna means the practice of generosity and charity, a form of giving to those in need. In Buddhism, the Buddha advised a person to practice generosity in perfection to eliminate one’s selfishness by giving meaningful teachings as follows:
“And what does it mean to be consummate in generosity? There is the case of a disciple of the noble ones, his awareness cleansed of the stain of miserliness, living at home, freely generous,
- Bhikkhu, Thanissaro, trans, Dīghajāṇu Sutta: To Dīghajāṇu, AN 8:54
(USA: Ca, 2017: 511), 572
- Maurice, Walse, trans, Mahali Sutta: Heavenly Sights, Soul and Body,
DN 6 (Boston: Wisdom Publication, 1995), 146
openhanded, delighting in being magnanimous, responsive to requests, delighting in the distribution of alms. This is called being consummate in generosity.”272
Cultivating and developing generosity according to the Buddha’s early teachings is one of the four fundamental conditions for getting happiness and well-being in this life and hereafter. Buddhist followers believe that charity without wishing for anything in return leads to spiritual wealth. In Buddhist thought, the effect of charity is to purify and transform a giver’s mind. Moreover, generous virtue helps a practitioner detach from the attachment gradually.
According to the Buddha, a lay devotee who desires to be consummate in generosity, his mind is not selfish but freely generous, delights in doing charity and offerings. Therefore, the Buddha said that a filial child should advise parents to practice generous virtue to attain happiness, peace, and welfare in this life and the next lives. 273
Valuable messages of the Great Master about the practical meaning of wisdom (Paññā) were collected in Dīghajāṇu Sutta as follows:
“And what does it mean to be consummate in discernment? There is the case where a disciple of the noble ones is discerning, endowed with discernment of arising and passing away — noble, penetrating, leading to the right ending of stress. This is called being consummate in discernment.”274
Wisdom (Paññā) preached by the Buddha in the text of Dīghajāṇu Sutta means discernment without illusion, ignorance, and clinging to worldly things. It is the capacity of recognizing and understanding deeply and clearly arising and descending
- Bhikkhu, Thanissaro, trans, Dīghajāṇu Sutta: To Dīghajāṇu, AN 8:54
(USA: Ca, 2017: 511), 572-573
- Kataññu suttas: Gratitude, AN 2:31-32,
- Bhikkhu, Thanissaro, trans, Dīghajāṇu Sutta: To Dīghajāṇu, AN 8:54
(USA: Ca, 2017: 511), 573)
humans and all beings. Wisdom was thus emphasized as one of four requisite elements for happiness and wealth of a Buddhist lay devotee in particular and a person in future lives. Therefore, to repay parents’ gratitude, a Buddhist child should advise one’s parents to cultivate and develop wisdom through usually listening to the Buddha’s teachings and sharing their knowledge with others without seeking anything in return.
In brief, filial piety to one’s parents in Buddhism connotes very wide meanings of appreciation and gratefulness both physically and mentally. Repaying filial piety in the physical aspect to one’s parents consist of love, obedience, veneration, taking care, serving when one’s parents are alive, as well as worship and remembrance after parents’ passing away. Besides, children look after themselves and their families, and they must be good and useful people, not make their parents sad or ashamed. In spiritual repaying to parents’ great compassion, it is shown by respecting parents and making parents satisfied and proud of their children. In the mental support, a filial child should also direct one’s parents to take refuge in the Triple Gems, cultivate and uphold the virtue of faith (Saddhā), virtue (Sīla), charity (Dāna), and wisdom (Paññā) according to the Buddha’s teachings. In addition, a filial child should also advise one’s parents to believe in the cause and effect to do good things and avoid evil ones leading to a happy, peaceful, and well-being in this life and hereafter. Hence, it can be said that repaying perfectly gratefulness to one’s parents both physically and mentally is really good dharma and a wholesome cause for parents and children to walk together on the right path, peace, and happiness under the Buddha’s thought.
CONCLUSION
The most eminent of all the high moral traits that are essential for a human being is that of filial virtue. It is a measurement of an individual’s moral standards or ideals relative to those of human society. As a result, a person can be considered filial if they constantly live their lives in accordance with ethical norms and if they correctly carry out the obligations and responsibilities that
come with being a filial child to one’s parents.
The duty of a filial child in Buddhism is shown in two aspects; namely, the material aspect and the spiritual aspect. In addition, filial person always lives responsibly and faithfully, not only for their parents but also for their other family members and the people in their community. These virtuous actions, which include showing reverence for one’s parents and expressing thanks for the care they have provided throughout one’s life, will serve as the single most significant basis for the development of a human being’s superior moral traits in the world. Because of this, the Buddha taught that persons who regularly engage in mindful observation, adhere to the aforementioned wholesome behaviors, and abstain from engaging in unwholesome deeds can free themselves from the constraints of day-to-day existence.
Therefore, the Blessed One often praised those who always respect and show gratitude to their parents and criticized unfilial ones. According to the sayings of the Blessed One, whoever fulfills these good things deserves to be praised and gets a lot of wholesome blessings. Hence, it can be said that Lord Buddha and his disciples are good examples and ideal models of filial piety for posterity and the teachings are to be followed by layman also.
***
BIOGRAPHY
- Peter, Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History, and Practices (Cambridge University Press, 2012), p.p 154-326.
- Merv Fowler, Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices (Sussex
Academic Press, 1999), 60–62, ISBN 978-1-898723-66-0.
- An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History, and Practices, 154, 326
- Dhammananda, Sri, The Dhammapada (Malaysia: Sasana Abhiwurdhi Wardhana Society, 1988), p. 519.
- Acharya Buddharakkhita The Dhammapada: The Buddha’s Path of Wisdom. Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication
Society. 1985.
- Bhikkhu Bodhi, The connected discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of Saṃyutta Nikāya. USA: Wisdom Publications. 2000
- Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi, trans, Dhanañjāni sutta: to Dhanañjāni. Sri Lanka: Kandy, Buddhist publication 1995.
- Bhikkhu, Thanissaro, trans. A Handful of Leaves, Volume IV: An Anthology from the Anguttara Nikāya. USA: Ca,
***
_ _ THE MOVEMENT OF MAHAYANA
BUDDHISM AND ITS SPREAD IN INDIA
Bhikṣuṇī TN. TUE ANH
PhD scholar at the University of Calcutta, West Bengal, India.
|
Abstract
ahāyāna Buddhism, with nearly twice the followers of other Buddhist sects, has contributed significantly
to social service and human liberation for over two thousand years. It has flourished in literature, philosophy, and art, and has a unique position in East Asian countries. Originating in South India, especially since the emergence of prominent masters such as Nāgārjuna, Aśvaghoṣa, Asaṅga, and Vasubandhu, Mahāyāna Buddhism spreads to North and East Asia, occupying a unique position for over twenty centuries. The new movement to bring Buddhism to life, interpreting positive Buddhist words, has saved it in new circumstances and proved immensely effective in new lands.
Keywords: Mahāyāna Buddhism, Nāgārjuna, Aśvaghoṣa, Asaṅga, and Vasubandhu.
Introduction
As we all know, all Buddhist movements through each stage are adaptations to the changes of the times, and the ability of humans. Buddhism would be very difficult to adapt to if it was just conservative to call it the same form in which life is a constant movement. As Sectarian Buddhism is losing its flexibility from the times, contemporary Indian society is undergoing great changes such as the doctrines of Sàmïkhya, Vaisesika, New Brahmin are forming and effectively flourishing, two great Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata have been perfected, the intersection of Indian culture with Persian and Greek is connected. In that social situation, if Buddhism wants to survive and develop, it must have a renewal and self-transformation to avoid the risk of boredom and backwardness, so Mahāyāna Buddhism was born.
In the last few centuries, when the westerner sought to explore civilization from the east, they found Buddhism, they explored and translated the Pali Tipitaka and tried to promote Pali tradition not only in countries with Buddhist traditions but also in western countries. This is great for Buddhism but also inadvertently raises questions about the orthodoxy of Mahāyāna Buddhism and there are also scholars who have claimed Mahāyāna Buddhism is not a Buddha`s teaching, such as the Japanese scholar of the Edo period Tominaga Nagamoto (1715-1746). So who were the pioneers of the Mahāyāna Buddhist movement?
There are also many theories that Mahāyāna Buddhism is the version of sectarian Buddhism275 because people see similarities to the place of origin (Andra, now in the state of Andra Pradesh) with Mahasamghika, some even claim that it was founded by a layman initiated by Jean Przylusky276, Etienne Lamotte277 and this
- Hendrik Kern and K. Warder are two Mahāyāna Buddhist scholars
derived from several monks of Mahasamghika origin.
- Jean Przyluski (17 August 1885 – 28 October 1944) was a French linguist and scholar of religion and Buddhism of Polish
- Étienne Paul Marie Lamotte (21 November 1903 – 5 May 1983) was a Belgian priest and Professor of Greek at the Catholic University of Louvain, but better known as an Indologist and the greatest authority on Buddhism in the West at his time.
view continue to manifest in Akira Hirakawa’s “A study of early Mahāyāna Buddhism”. However, these two opinions were quickly proved to be mistaken by scholars, Mahāyāna Buddhism was the result of both true bhikkhus, bhikkhunis and forward thingking lay Buddhists. This was said by Shizuka Sasaki in “A study on the origin of Mahayan Buddhism” or as Kimura Taiken said in Daijō Bukkyō shisōron (Mahāyāna Buddhist Thought) “this is a movement carried out by momks and Buddhist followers278.” The cause of this confusion may be that by the time Mahāyāna Buddhist thought was praised, the role of lay Buddhists was enhanced, which was expressed through Sūtras such as the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra, śrīmālādevī-sūtra, or Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra,.. It was an ideological breakthrough, a revolution because the role of the previous monastic was always in the leading position in cultivating and guiding and educating sentient beings, so the initial statements such as the initiator of the Mahāyāna Buddhist movement were laymen are understandable.
Mahāyāna in Mahāyāna Buddhism is often translated as “big chariot”. The word “Maha’ means big, “Yana” means a chariot, a large chariot that can carry more people. Mahāyāna Buddhism or Development Buddhism is the idea, the path, not an integral part of Buddhism. The dominant thought of Mahāyāna Buddhism is the philosophy of Buddha-Nature, the Bodhisattva Path and the Prajna - Sunyata, which breathed new life into Buddhism, which was saturated at the time of Sectarian Buddhism. This was a leap forward for the Buddhist thought system. So when did it appear?
Before there was a complete Mahāyāna Buddhist system with a fresh interpretation of the Buddha’s teachings, this movement went through a period called Semi-Mahāyāna. This early semi- Mahāyāna period only stopped at developing the thought of up to six brahmanas and some of the Buddha’s special mental powers without advancing to such philosophies as, emptiness... Buddhism
- Kimura Taiken, Daijō Bukkyō shisōron (Mahāyāna Buddhist Thought), Thich Quang Do (tr.) Ho Chi Minh City, Hong Duc Publishing House 2020, (in Vietnamese). entered the Semi-Mahāyāna period very early, if not during the reign of King Ashok, at least immediately after his reign279.
It is difficult to say the exact date of the birth of Mahāyāna Buddhism, based on the oldest Aṣṭasāhasrikā-prajñā-pāramitā Sūtra found in Nepal dating to around 50 AD, and the study of Sanskrit into Chinese translation sheds some light on the period of emergence of Mahāyāna Buddhism as Hirakawa and Sasaki280 did and the studies of scholars especially Kimura Taiken in Daijō Bukkyō shisōron (Mahāyāna Buddhist Thought), we can confirm that Mahāyāna Buddhism came into existence between the first century BC and the first century AD, i.e. about 400 years after the time of the Buddha.
According to the history of the translation of the oldest Aṣṭasāhasrikā-prajñā-pāramitā Sūtra, the ancient Sūtra of Mahāyāna Buddhist literature was first translated by Jikubussaku in 172 in Luoyang after it was transmitted to China and then translated again by Lokaksema (arrived in China in 167) in 178 during the Later Han Dynasty as the “道行般若經”, therefore, Mahāyāna Buddhism along with the literature of this school could not appear in the 2nd century until later, but must have appeared earlier, i.e. the first century BC to the first century AD or earlier.
Place of departure
According to Kimura Taiken, the birthplace of Mahāyāna Buddhism was South India, the center of Mahāyāna at its beginning. This issue among scholars has differing opinions, but personally, I still consider South India, especially the area of the Andra, to be the first center of Mahāyāna, especially where the Mahāyāna Prajna arose. The Andra locality, as mentioned above, is an area where the liberal sect of the Mahasamghika flourished, and its ideology is closely related to Mahāyāna, so that South India may be the basic site of Mahāyāna. It is also said in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā-
- Dutt, Nalinaksha,, Mahāyāna and the connection with Hinayana,
Thich Minh Chau (tr.)Ho Chi Minh City Publishing House 1999, 30.
- Shizuka, Sasaki, A Study on the Origin of Mahāyāna Buddhism, The Eastern Buddhist (New Series), 1997, 85.
prajñā-pāramitā Sūtra said: “This Paramita Sūtra begins in the South, then from the South to the West, and then from the West to the North.” We can say that the above statement is one of the reliable legends. While it is customary for Mahāyāna to flourish in the South, but North India, on the other hand, is the center of Mahāyāna prosperity. If we take the art and literature of Buddhism that still exist today as evidence for comparison, we see it very clearly! So, if we put it simply, Mahāyāna thought has arisen in both South and North India, South India represents Sunyavada, North India represents Ontology. By the time the two movements merged, the Mahāyāna movement had become apparent281”.
When we collate the data to find the path of the spread of Mahāyāna Buddhist literature, we can see that many Buddhist translators came from northeastern India, who brought their country’s scriptures to China for translation such as Lokaksema, one of the early translators of Chinese Buddhism was also a translator from Gandhara and it is impossible not to mention that many texts belonging to Mahāyāna Buddhist literature were found in Bamiyan (present-day Afghanistan), Gandhara and Dunhuang ruins (China) which were located on the Silk Road - the road of communication between China and Central Asian countries. Therefore, the the Aṣṭasāhasrikā-prajñā-pāramitā Sūtra or Mahāyāna Buddhism originated in south India and then spread to the west and developed in the north and then transmitted to China is a very reliable statement.
As we have learned above, Mahāyāna Buddhist texts in Sankrit appeared in the first century BC and other texts appeared and perfected in later centuries. Sankrit was chosen for its expressive perfection, responding to the literary levitation of Mahāyāna classical literature, which Prakit and Pali languages could not do that.
There are countless Mahāyāna scriptures in Sankrit that were compiled and spread throughout the golden age of Mahāyāna
- Kimura Taiken, Daijō Bukkyō shisōron (Mahāyāna Buddhist Thought), Thich Quang Do (tr.) Ho Chi Minh City, Hong Duc Publishing House 2020, (in Vietnamese).
Buddhism from the first century BC until the 7th century AD, but unfortunately now we can only access these Sūtras with Chinese or Tibetan translations that are not possible original Sankrit for comparison. However, there are still nine Sankrit scriptures found and kept solemnly in Nepal, which are known as the Vaipulya- sūtras. The titles of these Sūtras are:
- Aṣṭasāhasrikā-prajñā-pāramitā (Tiểu Phẩm Bát Nhã),
- Saddharma-puṇḍarīka-sūtra (Kinh Pháp Hoa),
- Lalitavistara-sūtra (Kinh Đại Trang Nghiêm),
- Laṅkāvatāra hay Saddharmalaṅkāvatāra-sūtra (Kinh Lăng Già),
- Suvarṇa-prabhāsa-sūtra (Kinh Kim Quang Minh),
- Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra (Kinh Hoa Nghiêm),
- Tathāgata-guhyaka hay Tathāgata-guṇajñāna-sūtra (Kinh Như Lai Bí Mật Tạng),
- Samādhirāja-sūtra (Kinh Thiền-định Vương),
- Daśabhūmīśvara-sūtra (Kinh Thập Địa)282.
Mahāyāna landmarks in ancient India:
In the Gandavyùha Sūtra, it is mentioned that Manjusrì starts from Jatavana to travel within Daksinàpatha, arriving at Màladhvajavyùha caitya, in the big city of Dhanyàkara, where there are many devotees. Here Manjusrì gave teachings that caused Sudhanu, the son of a very wealthy banker, to develop bodhichitta and teach Sudhanu to go to Sugrìvaparvata in Ràmavartta (also in Daksinàpatha) to study Samanta bhadra bodhisattvacaryà (Great Bodhisattva Vow). Sudhanu traveled through many lands in search of the truth and eventually arrived at Dandravatì. After learning all that he could learn in South India, Sudhanu traveled to Kapilavastu and traveled through many countries in the North. Also in Manjusrimùlakalpa, Dhànyakataka, Srìparvata and
- Winternitz, Maurice, A History of Indian Literature, 2, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2015, 294.
other places in Daksinàpatha are mentioned and it is stated that Buddhism flourished in these places283. This is also a database for us to visualize the development and spread, flourishing in ancient Indian lands.
Figure 1: Map of the spread of Buddhism from the source of the Library of Congress284.
The birthplace of Mahāyāna Buddhism Amaravati
- Dutt, Nalinaksha, Mahāyāna and the connection with Hinayana, Thich Minh Chau (tr.), Ho Chi Minh City Publishing House 1999, 32
- buddhistdoor.net/news/us-library-of-congress-gives- glimpse-into-early-buddhist-texts-from-gandhara.
Amaravati is the capital of Andra Pradesh and the center of Buddhism in the past, it was not only the center of the Mahasamghika sect but also the origin of Mahāyāna Buddhism. During the reign of King Ashoka, the king also built the Amaravati Stupa (3BC). Here Amaravati Buddhist art (2BC – 4AD) one of the world’s first three styles of Buddha statues, the other two being Mathura and Gandhara, a common feature of these three schools all bear the hallmarks of Mahāyāna Buddhism. This Amaravati school developed to the peak, the Amaravati style Buddha statues have a balanced, harmonious shape, delicate and soft clothing techniques, exuding the majestic beauty of the Buddha: The hair on the top of the head is pulled three or four rings in the style of ushsina, the hair on the forehead is curled in the shape of a snail, with a full round face, long ears and deep eyes, a three-pronged neck, bare right shoulders, a shirt from the left shoulder hanging down in the style of a Yaksha god, an ankle-length Antariya, folds on the left hand, which is the long wide Uttayria that monks wear when traveling. This art school spead strongly to other countries such as Indonesia, Cambodia, Srilanka,...
In Vietnam, the Amaravati school profoundly influenced Champa sculpture and archaeologists also found a bronze Amaravati style Buddha statue in Dong Duong village, Thang Binh, Quang Nam (1901)285. Even in Amaravati, small Buddha statues dating back to the first century AD and quite a few Buddha statues dating back to the 2nd century AD. The art of bronze Amaravati Buddhist sculpture reached its peak and had a significant impact on Buddhist countries on the path of Buddhism, especially Southeast Asian countries and Sri Lanka.
As Kimura Taiken describes the origin site of Mahāyāna Buddhism above, the origination site is South India, “the center of Mahāyāna at its beginning. This issue among scholars has differing opinions, but personally, I still recognize South India, especially the area of the Andra sect, as the first center of the
- Ngo Van Danh, Dong Duong Buddha and Amaravati Buddha Group in Southeast Asia, Journal of Buddhist Studies 4, 15/07/2012.
Mahayan Buddhism. Especially where the Mahāyāna prajna was born. Amaravati is widely accepted by many researchers as the birthplace of Mahāyāna Buddhism
Figure 2: Statue of Dong Duong Buddha, Vietnam of the Amaravati school286.
Mahāyāna Buddhism in the region of Ajanta, Ellora.
Not far from Amaravati, images of Mahāyāna Buddhism are
- https://image.giacngo.vn/w645/UserImages/2015/06/29/11/dong%20 duong%20(2).jpg.
present in the famous cave and also the world cultural heritage of the Ajanta and Elora caves. This cave complex is a synthesis of the three main religions of India, in addition to the sculptural caves of Hinduism and Jains, there are also sculptural caves expressing the Buddhist religion. In Buddhist inscriptions, there are statues bearing the sign of Mahāyāna Buddhism such as on the large pillar to the right of Chaitya 3 in Kanheri that above is inscribed “dedication to happiness and blessings to all beings”, this is a form of Mahāyāna Buddhism and not of other Buddhist sects. In this monument we can see the image of the eleven-headed Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, with the image of Tara and the Buddha of Acubaton in cave number 41287.
Figure 3: The Buddha in the Dharmachakra mudra, sitting in the pose of a Mahāyāna Buddhist king in cave number 10, Ellora cave288.
- K. Dhavalikar, “Ajanta: The Hinayana-Mahāyāna Transition”, in Article Published on: 27 October 2016.
- Hoang Phong, “The art of expressing the identity of the Buddha”, Lotus Library, 24/10/2011. https://thuvienhoasen.org/a13380/nghe-thuat-bieu- thi-nhan-dang-duc-phat
Mahāyāna Buddhism in Mathura
In July 1977, traces of Mahāyāna Buddhism were found in Govindnagar, on the western outskirts of Mathura city, an inscribed pillar base with references to Amitabha Buddha, which is evidence by the first inscription for Mahāyāna Buddhism. The inscription mentions “the 26th year of the great king Huveska”, which dates back to 104 AD. The inscription reads as follows:
“The 26th year of the Great King Huveska, the 2nd month, the 26th day. On this day by Nagaraksita the (father) of the trader (Sax- caka), grandson of merchant Balakatta, the (son of Buddhapila). An image of the Blessed One, the Buddha Amitabha was set up for the worship of all Buddhas. Through this root of merit (may) all living things (obtain) the unexcelled knowlege of a Buddha289”.
Inscriptions related to the Bodhisattva of Avalokitera were also found in Mathura dating from the 5th century, inscriptions on lion stone statues,... are also living testimonies to the Mahāyāna Buddhist presence here. Mathura is also the birthplace of the Mathura School of Buddha sculpture (1BC - 6 or 7AD), this school was born due to the development of Mahāyāna Buddhism, because from the first century onwards was the period of aniconic, Buddhist sects did not worship Buddha statues but only worshipped symbolic objects such as the wheel of Falun, lotus... The model of the Mathura school is Indian in nature, rounded, tight robes without folds are different from other art schools.
- Schopen, Gregory (1987). “The Inscription on the Kuṣān Image of Amitābha and the Charakter of the Early Mahāyāna in India” (PDF). The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies. 10 (2): 110–
- Archived from the original (PDF) on December 7, 2019.
Figure 5: The image of the Falun Buddha on display at the Kolkata Museum in Mathura style. It was taken by the author in January 2023.
Mahāyāna Buddhism in Bamiyan.
Another special locality associated with Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism is the Bamiyan region, which once recorded two of the world’s largest Buddha statues intricately sculpted on a cliff but was no longer destroyed by the Taliban in 2001.
Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang visited a Mahāsāṃghika- Lokottaravāda monastery in the 7th century at Bamiyan,Afghanistan, and the monastery site has been rediscovered by archaeologists. Birch bark manuscripts and palm leaf manuscripts of texts in this monastery’s collection, including Mahāyāna scriptures, have been discovered at the site and are now in the Schøyen Collection. Some manuscripts are in the Gāndhārī language and Kharoṣṭhī script,
while others are in Sanskrit and written in the form of Gupta script. The manuscripts and surviving fragments from the collection of this monastery include the following source texts:
- Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, a Mahāyāna sūtra
(MS 2385).
- Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra, a Mahāyāna sūtra (MS 2385).
- Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra, a Mahāyāna sūtra (MS
2378).
- Pravāraṇa Sūtra, a Mahāyāna sūtra (MS 2378)
- Sarvadharmapravṛttinirdeśa Sūtra, a Mahāyāna sūtra (MS
2378)
- Ajātaśatrukaukṛtyavinodana Sūtra, a Mahāyāna sūtra (MS
2378)290.
Mahāyāna Buddhism in Gandhara and northwestern India
According to a 5th-century record by the Chinese pilgrim Faxian, in Kosambi, Gandhara, Kanyakubja both Mahāyāna and Hinayana sects developed and prevailed, but Hinayana Buddhism still held the majority. Mahāyāna Buddhism in Khotan (now Tajikistan and part of China), Patna, Achakuka was more prevalent than Hinayana.
Archaeological records have shown that, among the most important material in the Gandhari manucripts are the several Mahāyāna Buddhist scriptures and “at least seven Mahāyāna texts in Gāndhārī have now been identified among the manuscripts of the Bajaur, Split, and Bamiyan collections. Three of them, the Bodhisattvapiṭaka Sūtra, the Sūtra of the Samādhi of the Collection of All Merits (Sarvapuṇyasamuccayasamādhi Sūtra), and the Sūtra of the Fortunate Eon are among the Bamiyan fragments, which generally represent the later phases of Gāndhārī literature, but four more examples have also been identified among older groups. Especially noteworthy is a text of the Perfection of Wisdom Sūtra
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahāsāṃghika.
that has been radiocarbon-dated to a period between the middle of the first and middle of the second centuries CE, and that presents an early form of one of the most foundational sūtras of Mahāyāna Buddhism.
Another early Mahāyāna sūtra from the Bajaur collection, whose title unfortunately does not survive, is of extraordinary significance. At nearly six hundred lines, this is the longest Gāndhārī manuscript known to date. It records the Buddha’s teachings to 84,000 divine beings (devaputra) about the training and career of a bodhisattva. The discourse includes a description of the world where the divine beings will ultimately be reborn, the pure realm of an otherwise unknown Buddha Vipulaprabhāsa or Mahāprabha, which is likened to the more familiar Abhirati paradise of the Buddha Aksobhya291. This was the early form of Pure Land belief and was later popularized in East Asian countries.
Gandhara is also an extremely special land, the birthplace of many talented people of Buddhism such as the Asangha, Vasubandhu, Padmasambhava, Lokaksema ... This is where both Hinayana and Mahāyāna Buddhism flourished, where the fourth Buddhist Council gathering took place in Indian, because this was the territory of the Sarvastivada, this gathering was said to be the gathering of the Sarvastivada, so it was not accepted by the Theravada tradition. This land is also the end of the China- India Silk Road, so it is the place where many translators and missionaries come to China and open a promised land for Mahāyāna Buddhism in China. Gandhara is also known as an art school with an ancient Greek style (50 BC – 500 AD), the statues of this school are extremely elaborately sculpted, the lines are softly honed, the face is delicate, the sophistication is very beautiful, the two giant statues in Bamiyan and the sculptures in Sanchi ruins are typical works of the art school this. This school was very popular and is still influential today.
- Salomon, Richard, The Buddhist Literature of Ancient Gandhara, An
Introduction with selected Translations, Wisdom Publishcation (2018), Tr 80.
Image 6: Gandhara Shakyamuni Buddha on display at Delhi Museum, India, taken in September 2019 by writer.
Mahāyāna Buddhism Nalanda University and Vikramshila University.
University should also be solemnly placed in the geographical map of Mahāyāna Buddhism. These are two universities with the size of more than a thousand monks attended. Nalanda University is a Buddhist center that not only houses the Nikaya philosophical system but also brings together the quintessence of contemporary Buddhist philosophy, Mahāyāna Buddhism. Especially when Nagarjuna was studying, if there were no teachings here for Nagarjuna to study Mahāyāna Buddhism, how could he study composition and become the president of India’s largest and most famous university at that time. It should also be mentioned that, under Nagarjuna’s leadership, Mahāyāna Buddhism gradually spread and flourished in northern India. Another fact is that Xuanzang is also here to study and study the Mahāyāna Law Scriptures, the more certain we are that this is a general academic center, Mahāyāna studies are focused along with other philosophical disciplines.
Vikramshila University, located in Antichak village, 50km east of Bhagalpur, also in Bihar, was founded by Emperor Dharmapala (783-820) in the late 8th and early 9th centuries, citing the decline in the teaching quality of Nalanda Academy. Vikramshila was once the center of Vajrayana Buddhism with more than 100 teachers and thousands of monks. Many elite scholars studied here before going abroad to study. Atisha Dipankara (982 – 1054) was a great master and founder of the New Sect (Sarma) of Tibetan Buddhism, who studied here. This is the center of Vajrayana Buddhism of Mahāyāna Buddhism founded after Nalanda around the 8th century and lasted until the 11th century, the same destiny as Nalanda University when the Muslim army overran and destroyed.
Mahāyāna Buddhism is the movement of Buddhism to adapt to new circumstances, its content, philosophy or practice is not apart from Buddha’s teaching. Mahāyāna Buddhism differs only in that it provides people with an unafraid vision and gives them extra wings to fly higher and farther in the sky over the Dharma, because only flying high and flying far away can one overcome the obstacles in front of them as in The Appearance Of A Jeweled Stupa Chapter of the Lotus Sūtra, If you want to see Buddha Prabhutarana, if you want to hear the meaning of the “to unite the three vehicles in one”, you must ask the Buddha’s divine force to lift it into the air. The formation and origin of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India helps us return to the roots and answers the question of the origin of Mahāyāna Buddhism that has been left open by history, leaving many people confused and confused about the progressive ideology that our whole nation has believed in for more than two thousand years. We firmly believe that by learning about the origins of Mahāyāna Buddhism, we have resolved the origins of Mahāyāna being labeled as half-blooded with pagans and strengthened the foundation of righteousness for Mahāyāna Buddhism more and more deeply.
***
BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Kimura Taiken, Daijō Bukkyō shisōron (Mahāyāna Buddhist Thought), Thich Quang Do (tr.) Ho Chi Minh City, Hong Duc Publishing House (in Vietnamese).
- Dutt, Nalinaksha, Thich Minh Chau translation, Mahāyāna and the connection with Hinayana, Ho Chi Minh City Publishing House
- Shizuka, Sasaki, A Study on the Origin of Mahāyāna Buddhism, The Eastern Buddhist (New Series),
- Winternitz, Maurice, A History of Indian Literature, 2, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2015.
- Dutt, Nalinaksha, Thich Minh Chau translation, Mahāyāna and the connection with Hinayana, Ho Chi Minh City Publishing House
- Ngo Van Danh, Dong Duong Buddha and Amaravati Buddha Group in Southeast Asia, Journal of Buddhist Studies 4, 15/07/2012.
- K. Dhavalikar, Ajanta: The Hinayana-Mahāyāna
Transition, in Article Published on: 27 October 2016.
- Salomon, Richard, The Buddhist Literature of Ancient Gandhara, An Introduction with selected Translations, Wisdom Publishcation (2018).
- Hoang Phong, “The art of expressing the identity of the Buddha”, Lotus Library, 24/10/2011.
- Schopen, Gregory (1987). “The Inscription on the Kuṣān Image of Amitābha and the Charakter of the Early Mahāyāna in India” (PDF). The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies. 10 (2): 110–111. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 7, 2019
- https://thuvienhoasen.org/a13380/nghe-thuat-bieu-thi- nhan-dang-duc-phat
- buddhistdoor.net/news/us-library-of-congress-gives- glimpse-into-early-buddhist-texts-from-gandhara.
- https://image.giacngo.vn/w645/UserImages/2015/06/29
/11/dong%20duong%20(2).jpg
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MAHAYANA BUDDHIST MONUMENTS IN ANDHRA PRADESH
Ph.D. Scholar Thich Dat Huyen - Ha Van Son
Āchāya Nāgārjuna University, Guntur-522510, A.P., India
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Abstract
he Buddhists came to Andhra Pradesh around the period of the Middle-Maurya empire, but it must have been
before the time of Asoka king. Andhra Pradesh Buddhism became popular during the Asoka period, extending into the period of the Ikshvāku emperor, and was in occupation from the 3rd century B.C. to the 6th century A.D. Buddhism was multifariously influenced in the spheres of culture, art, and society by the spirituality of faith and doctrine. While the Mahasanghika’s sub-sects held a powerful impact in this area. The geography of these school establishments was to be identified as the places that belonged to Mahāyāna schools in the later. Those are the Dhanyakataka, Nagarjunakond, etc,. Mahāyāna Buddhist thought contributed to Buddhist philosophy by creating a new sphere for practice and worship through the teachings of great Acharyas such as Nāgārjuna, Āryadeva, Dinnaga, Asanga, and Vasubandhu. Besides that, the evidence such as the structures and inscriptions built in these locations, is famous in Buddhist art, and it is also a signification for Buddhism in Andhra Pradesh. The sculpture of art in this area is usually slighter and softer, and the hips are thinner and narrower. It has some differences from Sanchi and Mathura’s sculptures.
Keyword: Andhradesa Buddhism, Dhanyakataka, Nagarjunakonda,
INTRODUCTION
As we know, Buddhism began emergence with the enlightenment of the Gautam ascetic under the Bodhi tree. His enlightenment was the understanding of suffering, its origins, and the way to relieve human suffering. Besides that, he came to understand the principle activities of all phenomena in this universe. It is the function that constitutes and exists and the decay of all things in the world. They are called the Four Noble Truths and Pratītya-samutpāda doctrines, held as the essential treaties of Buddhism. Since his enlightenment and the existence of the Buddhist sangha, Buddhism has established itself in the Magadha and Kosala countries. Its strong reverberations were left and settled in Assaka country (nowadays called Andhra Pradesh state in India) as early as Buddha’s own time by the famous episode Brahman Bavari, originally hale from the Kosala.
The existence of Buddhism in Andhra Pradesh had been deeply ingrained in the social and cultural history of the Andhras as a single race. Andhra Pradesh played a remarkable role in its geographical extension and in developing and enriching Buddhist philosophy as a religion. According to the history of Buddhism in Andhra Pradesh, we cannot deny the existence of Mahāyāna Buddhist school on the Buddhist map of India in Andhra Pradesh in general.
Perhaps Buddhist philosophy became powerful and glorious through the intellect of scholars such as Nāgārjuna, Āryadeva, Dinnaga, Asanga, and Vasubandhu. They are the higher intellectual qualities that go deep into the ontological aspects of the Buddha’s teachings and play a crucial role in the evolution of Buddhism.
These scholars provided exposition and elaboration through their writings and commentaries. It held for an extended period, and its result was the rise and development of Mahāyana. According to A.K. Warder, ‘these texts had been confined to the sound, and they had not been exposed by the great Master, who belongs to the North.’292 Therefore, we may conclude that the Mahāyāna Buddhist school originated in the south of Andhra, and after that, it reached areas in the northwest of the empire of Kanishka.293
1. Advent of Buddhism in Andhra Pradesh
Buddhism made its way into Andhradesa (now called Andhra Pradesh) during the lifetime of Buddha, but there is no adequate evidence to support this view. Instead, most scholars believed that Buddhism existed in Andhradesa in the Mauryan empire, particularly in the mid-period of Aśoka in the third century B.C. It is based on the evidence from the Aśoka Rock edicts. Example: The Rock Edict Number XIII clearly states that the Andhras living within Raja Visaya already followed the Dhamma. This pillar was discovered in the Dhānyakataka area (called Amaravati later), and the fragment was supported to prove that Buddhism was influential in Andhradesa. It is enough for the Aśoka to give the order to erect ‘Dhamma thambani’ or ‘Pillars of Dhamma’ in this area to mark a significant place belonging to Buddhism. Therein, we could conclude that the Buddhist advent to Andhradesa belongs to the pre-Aśokan period, a fact of its existence there.
According to the records in Dipavamsa294, an ancient Buddhist historical record; and Mahāvamsa295, the great chronicle of Srilanka, they mentioned the missionaries for propagating Buddhism in the inter-area named Mahisha-mandala. This place is a light area belonging to the Guntupalli. The King Mahārajasada
- K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, p. 352
- Dutt, Mahāyāna Buddhism, p. 8-9
- Dipavamsa, An Ancient Buddhist Historical Record (trans) by
Hermann Oldenberg, p. 159- 160
- Mahavamsa, The Great Chronicle of Srilanka (Trans) by Wilhem Geiger, 82
(circa 75–100 A.D.) of the Mahāmeghavahana dynasty erected a pillar in this area, which is described as the Lord’s donation of the coastal or Krishna-Godavari region of Andhradesa.296 Besides, the belief is reinforced by a fragmentary pillar inscription of Aśoka himself located beside the Dhānyakataka stūpa showing that the Mauryan emperor initially erected it. Therefore, there is no doubt that a solid Buddhist tide was experienced in most regions in Andhradesa and the adjoining areas of Mahārashtra and Karnataka during the mid-Maurya period. The development of Buddhism in Andhradesa is also dependent on the phases of its sites, such as the many Buddhist monuments from small to large, which became the studded concern of all social strata. The Buddhists of Andhradesa were not only influenced by cultural history but also played a pivotal role in the progress of schism in the sangha and contributed to how the Mahāyāna school enriched the doctrine of Buddhism.
Another fact, based on records from historical Buddhist sources, is that the schism in the Buddhist sangha took place at the Vaiśāli and was divided into two schools. They are Sthaviravadins and Mahāsaṅghikas. This schism occurred in the second Buddhist council297 when there were different standpoints in explaining the Buddha’s teaching between elder monks and Vijjain monks. The Mahāsaṅghika school migrates from Magadha in two streams, one towards the north and the other towards the south. The southern group of this school settled down in Andhradesa around Dhānyakataka.298 After establishing a suitable position in this area, this school is subdivided into other branches concentrated at Nāgārjunakoṇḍa and dwelling on the mountains around. These schools are: Purvasaila, Aparaila, Siddharthaka, Rajagirika, and Caityaka.
Since Buddhism has its roots firmly in Andhradesa, general opinions are that it dates from the Aśoka period, extending into the
- Kamalakar, Buddhism: Art, Architecture, Literature and Philosophy,
vol. II, p. 451
- N Dutt, Buddhist Sect in India, 13- 15
- N Dutt, Mahāyāna Buddhism, 11
period of the Ikshvāku emperor, and was in occupation from the 3rd century B.C. to the 6th century A.D. Buddhism was multifariously influenced in the spheres of culture, art, and society by the spirituality of faith and doctrine. The existence of Buddhist schools belonging to both the Sthaviravada sub-sect and the Mahāsaṅghika sub-sect in Andhradesa. Primarily, their geography could be identified along with the coastal area of the Godavari and Krishna rivers. According to Prof. Sreelatha Rao, the geographically Andhradesa could be divided into three marked regions for all Buddhism monuments. They are ghats (trekking steps), plateaus, and coastal plains. The evidence of Buddhist architectural positions lying low on the hill such as Salihundam, Sankaram, Guntupalli, Ramatirthan, Bavikoṇḍa, Chandavaram, etc. The other places, the Godavari riverside, have Pasigam, Kotilingala, and Guntupalli, which hold significant Buddhist monuments. The Krishna riverside has some great Buddhist sites such as Dhanyanakataka (Amaravati), Goli, Manchikallu, Gummadidurru, Nāgārjunakoṇḍa, etc. Therefore, the Andhradesa’s Buddhism monuments are a coastal line from the Srikakulam to Nellore.299 Based on the above facts, the Buddhist monuments are well linked with the land trade route when they are located alongside two rivers and the Bay of Bengal. Moreover, Buddhism had some important royal converts and got support from a group of Aristocrats to patron religious activities and operations. Then the Dharma is preached in this area in Telugu’s local language; it is not in Sanskrit or Prakit as in the northern area. The Buddhism monuments might classify into two groups, Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna group. This paper deals with the geographical position of the Mahāyāna Buddhism monuments in Andhradesa based on some Buddhist historical sources, the famous Mahāyāna Buddhism monuments could be identified as Dhānyakataka, Nāgārjunakoṇḍa, Sankaram, jaggayyapeta ect.
- Kamalakar, Buddhism: Art, Architecture, Literature and philosophy,
vol. II, p. 451
Buddhist sites in Andhra Pradesh300
2. Dhānyakataka
The Buddhist monument Dhānyakataka, currently known as Amaravati, is on the right bank of the Krishna River, nearby Guntur city, and the distance is 21 miles. Dhānyakataka was identified as a flourishing Buddhist centre from the third century B.C. to the thirteenth century A.D. Many inscriptions are found at this site, attesting to the fact that Dhānyakataka is the centre of Buddhism. The whole structure of this monument involves numerous parts, but its dominant part is the main stūpa, Mahāchaitya. This stūpa also formed the principal focus of the Buddhist establishment, and its date is not beyond the 3rd century B.C.301
- Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Holy_relic_ jpg
- Kamalakar, Buddhism: Art, Architecture, Literature and philosophy,
vol. II, p. 391
The Mahachaitya Amaravati302
According to the investment collected from the excavation and inscriptions in this monument, the Mahāchaitya structure, including the railing, underwent additions and embellishments unsurpassed by other analogous contemporaneous monuments in India. It was around the 2nd century A.D. Besides that, another section’s existence in this structure is also described in the votive inscriptions, which record gifts of craved casing-slabs, pillars, coping, uprights, cross-bars, etc.—by monks, nuns, and hundreds of devotees and lay worshippers from other lands of India, not only from within the Dhānyakataka area. This period was also the most successful for the sculptors of art in Dhānyakataka, and it reached its zenith in the Buddhist art school in the south of India.303
- Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amaravathi
_Maha_Sthupam- Amaravathi,Guntur_district,_Andhra_Pradesh,_India.jpg
- The Indian Antiquary A Journal of Oriental Research, XV, 259
Craving limestone and votive pillar304
Otherwise, they intoxicated themselves into leading a creative impulse when they produced relief after relief bearing the superb expressiveness and exuberance of beauty. One of them, the pillars with the wheel-crowned symbol, or Dharmacakra, is located at the western gate of Mahāchaitya. It is suggested that it dates from the reign of Sātavāhana king Pulumavi (circa 59–130 A.D.). On the other hand, the Buddhist art of this place in the earliest times was also mere symbols, or called ‘aniconic,’ but in the first century
B.C. and A.D., the style of the anthropomorphic art in Buddhism
on stone emerged. It might be a natural result of the progress and
- Retrieved from https://kevinstandagephotography.wordpress. com/2019/10/03/amaravati-marbles-british-museum-elliot-marbles/
development of religion. In other words, it could also be understood through philosophy, that is, the process of transformation in Buddhist thought, which is called the Mahāyāna school later. The new Buddhist thought must have begun as a co-nascent process in the previous period. To make it convenient for the spread this new thought in society and get their acceptance, the philosopher had to use the way of art to perform it, and it was a success.
Railing pillars305
Another trace to proving the Dhānyakataka is a centre of Mahāyāna Buddhism that has a good number of stone and bronze
- Retrieved from https://kevinstandagephotography.wordpress. com/2019/10/03/amaravati-marbles-british-museum-elliot-marbles/
images of Buddha as well as stone figures of Buddhist deities such as Maitreya, Manjusri, Lokesvara, Vajrapani, etc.; they were identified as being dated around the 6th to 11th century A.D.306 These images testified not only to the prosperity of Buddhist art and religion in this period but also to the gradual transformation of Buddhist thought from the Mahāsaṅghika form into the final Tantric Vajrayāna form.
Instead, the Dhānyakataka remains, as evidenced by the Gadaladeniya (district Kandy, Ceylon) rock inscription307 , dated around 1344, in which Dharmakirti, a sthavira, is credited with restoring a two-story image house of Dhānyakataka. Therefore, it was pointed out that this place is also an international position meeting for trade and religion. Although the religion sapped its vital forces, it slowly died, and the name Dhānyakataka was also changed to Amaravati, which means the city of gods after the deity.
The art shape of the Dhānyakataka structure is also interesting to study because it bears the thought that it existed in that period. Based on the historical records about this stūpa’s structure, the decorations of Amaravati stūpa are not inferior to those of Sanchi stūpa in scale and richness. This stūpa was built on a mound, making it a significant sight. However, in 1797, when Colonel Colin Mackenzie visited this site on the occasion of Dipaldinne (the hill of lamps), the local name of the mound containing the ruins of Mahāchaitya became the shallow mound, crowned in a turreted shape by a smaller one around 20 feet high and 90 feet in diameter at the top. Various pieces of fragmented carved stone and pillars, sculptures, large limestone slabs, etc., are scattered around this area. This time, he called this stūpa a ‘mysterious structure.’ According to his report, “the great stūpa was almost completely gone, and the centre of the stūpa had been drugged out to be used as a water tank.”308
- Madras, south Indian inscriptions, vol I, 25-28
- Epigraphia Zeylanica, vol IV (1943), p. 90
- Kamalakar, Buddhism: Art, Architecture, Literature and Philosophy,
vol. I, p. 82-83
The south gate of stupa Amaravati on 1880309
Hodgson’s manuscript, which was discovered in Nepal, is one of these pieces of evidence excavated at this site, which is essential for the Wester to have an interesting understanding of Buddhism. It was also discovered here, along with the images from Sanchi and Bharhut. Besides that, the Buddhist art in the Amaravati stūpa also decorates images concerning the Buddha’s life, which is almost a fact in the Jataka stories. Through these images, the artisans and patrons responsible in Amaravati want to perform respectful worship to Buddha in various functions. The worship of the images of Buddha reflected a shift in ritual practice and philosophical discourse. It has been consistent with a general emphasis on the contemporary Mahāyāna texts in South India. That is, the new ideas of the Buddhalogical were in the air, which means that one need only think of the complex articulation of the different kayas (bodies) worked out in various texts.310 Nonetheless, the Amaravati Buddhist art school in the region had influenced the typically stylistic terms of the Indian subcontinent. Thus, it finds expression again in Nāgārjunakoṇḍa art structure.
- Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amaravati_ jpg
- Kamalakar, Buddhism: Art, Architecture, Literature and Philosophy,
vol. I, p. 97
Jataka Stories311
3. Nāgārjunakoṇḍa
Of all the Buddhist sites of settlement in Andhradesa, Nāgārjunakoṇḍa is also an essential location for study because of the Mahāyāna Buddhist monument and pilgrimage. This monument is located in the hills (offshoots of the Nallamlai range) and spread over a few miles along the Krishna River. The same advantages were considered when, a few years ago, it was decided to convert the valley into a reservoir under the irrigation project of the Nāgārjunasagar Dam.
The establishment of this monument comes from the schism in the Mahāsaṅghika school at Dhānyakataka. According to the suggestion of B.S.L. Hanumantha Rao, the Mahāsaṅghika in south India was divided into schools such as Caityaka, Purvasaila,
- Retrieved from https://kevinstandagephotography.wordpress. com/2019/10/03/amaravati-marbles-british-museum-elliot-marbles/
Aparasaila, Rajagirika, Uttaragirika, and Siddharthaka. Their standpoint on doctrinal trends anticipates the Mahāyāna form. This event occurred in the first century A.D., during the period of the Sātavāhanaking, and was also the first appearance of Mahāyāna Buddhism.
Excavate sites at Nagarjunakonda 312
Prof. Aloka Parasher Sen suggests this is testified amply by the attitude mentioned in the inscription in Andhradesa about advocating universal love and the removal of the poverty and misery of all the world. As scholar T.V.R. Mutthi suggested, the emergency of Mahāyāna Buddhist thought change was a “Mahāyāna revolution,” because it was a radical pluralism that gave a path to absolutism and advocated an essential unity of all beings as an integral part of spiritual life.313
- Nagarjunakonda Archaeological Survey of India
- Kamalakar, Buddhism: Art, Architecture, Literature and Philosophy,
vol I, p. 30
According to the records of Huan-Tsang, the Amaravati region was to be a stronghold for the Mahāsaṅghika school at least up to the 7th century A.D., and they had their scriptures during the time Huan- Tsang spent here studying Abhidhamma texts under the teaching of the local monks.314 Otherwise, the Andhradesa’s inscription also mentioned the names of the Sailas (including the Purvasaila and Aparasaila), who held substantial influence in Nāgārjunakoṇḍa. The proof of their power is found in some evidence concerning the Aparasaila school. Its full name is AparaMahāvinaseliya, and it was prevalent in the regions of Nāgārjunakoṇḍa in the time of Ikshvāku.
The numerous epigraphical references under the name of this school described the inscription fragments excavated at this site. Besides that, it also indicates about the queen Bapasirinika, wife of Mahāraja Virapurushadatta, that the acceptance of a pious foundation in favor of Āchāyas belongs to the Aparasaila sect. Therefore, we could go to decency and suggest the Sailas schools under patronage from the royal or ruler, and Nāgārjunakoṇḍa has become popular as a great centre of Buddhism. However, according to the scholar J.Ph. Vogel, based on Prakit inscriptions excavated at the Nāgārjunakoṇḍa site, they did not mention the devotee of Ikshvāku to Buddhism. However, it was simply described to the patron by the queens and princesses belonging to the royal family of the Ikshvāku devotee to the Buddhism faith.315
- Watters, On Yuan Chwang’s travels in India, vol II, p. 217
315 Ibd,pp.51-52
The pillar inscription at Nagarjunakonda316
The Nāgārjunakoṇḍa monument is very closely associated with the great Buddhist philosopher Āchāya Nāgārjuna. Hence, the ‘koṇḍa’ word means ‘hill,’ it implying the hill of Nāgārjuna. He lived during the reign of Sātavāhanaking around the 2nd century
A.D. Nāgārjuna is also known as a great commentator and takes the initiative for the Mādhyamika Buddhist doctrine. He is famous for the doctrine of ‘Śūnyatā’ and belongs to the Mādhyamika school. Moreover, from the advocate standpoint of Śūnyatā, he wrote Mūla-Mādhyamika-kārikā to explain the theory of Śūnyatā. It also served as the foundation for establishing the Mādhyamika School of Middle-approach. He is also the author of several works, such as Prajñpāramitā, Upāyalauśalya hridaya-śāstra, Vigrahavyavaharini-kārikā, etc.
The structure of this monument includes some constructions of Buddhist sculpture, and the images of Bodhisattvas are also significant. The architectural form hardly evinced any appreciable
- Retrieved from http://standingtall-siddeshwar.blogspot.com/2018/04/ pillar-inscription-at-maha-stupa.html
evolution. In the grouping of different structures forming a unit, one was an assemblage of stūpa (called chaitya in inscriptions), one or two sanctuaries (called chaitya-ghara), and a maṇḍapa in the centre of a quadrangle around which abutted wings of a monastery (vihāra) with ancillary cells like a kitchen, storeroom, bathroom, etc. The most outstanding feature of this monument was that a stūpa had rarely existed as an independent monastery. It means that each establishment is self-sufficient and has its stūpa for worship and, in essential units, a sanctuary. The Mahāchaitya complex comprises the great stūpa and an apsidal chaitya-ghara with the stone-case stūpa and three-winged monastery around a hall (maṇḍapa) of thirty-six pillars built by Chamtisiri, sister of the first Ikshvāku king.317
In the general view of this Buddhist site, it is a group of construction sites where more than thirty Buddhist establishments were brought to light, the majority of which were full-fledged units.
The material used to construct these stūpas and others was either brick or rubble, with the mortar being clay. The walls were arranged in the form of a wheel with a rim and spokes radiating from a central hub. The stūpas were invariably coated with plates of lime. Nevertheless, some of them were built in the form of limestone carvings. Almost all monasteries have wings and are usually arranged around a central hall (maṇḍapa). The main hall was ordinary, built with wooden pillars or stone pillars, which were more in vogue.318
According to the statement by Haimedorf, similar to the stylist’s built-in Chenchus 319 , they are progressive types of slim and supple physiognomic forms that crowd the reliefs. The images depicted in Nāgārjunakoṇḍa reliefs also have slim, supple, long, and wiry arms and legs. It has some differences from Sanchi or Mathura.
- Indian Archaeology 1955-56- A Review, p 8-9
- Indian Archaeology 1955-56- A Review, p. 24
- A tribe of Lambadis living in the north of the Krishna
Craving stupa 320
The images in Nāgārjunakoṇḍa sculpture are usually slighter and softer, and the hips are thinner and narrower. It might be said that the Nāgārjunakoṇḍa reliefs are similar to the Amaravati in terms of the fundamental characters in the phases of stylistic form, idiom, and technical efficiency. They are the highlight, perhaps for the denominator in this wide area, while Nāgārjunakoṇḍa art seems flexible.321 Some scholars have suggested that Gandhara influences Nāgārjunakoṇḍa art. Because there are gestures of Buddha and Boddhisatva images, such as standing or seated with the sanghati covering both shoulders or even one left side, keeping the right one exposed.322 At Nāgārjunakoṇḍa, it is attested that a large number of Buddhist schools co-existed; even the
- Retrieved from https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/ search/38238
- Krishna Murthy, Nagarjunakonda A Cultural Study, p. 13-14
- Ibid,p.16
Mādhyamika is one predominant school and stronghold in this monument. Wherein if we say that Nāgārjunakoṇḍa seems to be the homeland of the Mahāyāna Buddhist school’s emergence later, it is not unreasonable.
CONCLUSION
Based on all of the evidence of Buddhism in Andhradesa, especially Mahāyāna Buddhist schools, the existence of Buddhism in Andhradesa dates back to the early time of Buddha, or at least to the second Buddhist council. Buddhism was established in Andhradesa before the Christ era, but the Mahāyāna Buddhism school could begin around 150–200 A.D.323
This opinion is based on the existence of Prajñpāramitā- sutta, which belongs to the Mahāsaṅghikas school and seems to be the forerunner of the Mahāyāna form. Along with Mahāyāna Buddhist thought, Buddhist locations were also established. Among the monuments belonging to Mahāyāna Buddhist sites, the Dhānyakataka and Nāgārjunakoṇḍa are two of them that hold important locations for Mahāyāna school in Andhradesa. The Dhānyakataka is a centre for Mahāyāna Buddhist thought and a Buddhist art school. The Nāgārjunakoṇḍa is the centre of a group of complex structures, including stūpas and vihāras. Otherwise, Nāgārjunakoṇḍa is still closed in relation to the great Buddhist philosophers such as Nāgārjuna, Āryadeva, Bavaviveka, Dinnaga, Asaṇga, and Vasubandhu, whose works are famous in the commentary works of Mahāyāna Buddhists. Thus, it might be said that Mahāyana, especially the Mādhyamika school, is the magnification achievement of Andhradesa Buddhists through their philosophy, to which they contributed tremendously later.
***
References
- Dutt, (1978). Buddhist Sect in India. Motilal Banarsidass.
- Hajime Nakamura, Indian Buddhist- A Survey with bibliography note,
p, 159
- Dutt, (1998). Mahāyāna Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass.
- Geiger, (2020). Mahavamsa, The Great Chronicle of Srilanka (Trans.). Gyan Publishing House.
- Ghosh, (1993). Indian Archaeology 1955-1956 - A Review. Delhi.
- Ghosh, (1958). Indian Archaeology 1957-1958 - A Review. Delhi.
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- Krishna Murthy, (1977). Nagarjunakonda: A Cultural Study. Concept Publishing Company.
- Nakamura, (1978). Indian Buddhist: A Survey with Bibliography Note. Motilal Banarsidass.
- Oldenberg, (2020). Dipavamsa, An Ancient Buddhist Historical Record (Trans.). Gyan Publishing House.
- Paranavitana, (1943). Epigraphia Zeylanica, Vol. IV
(Edict). London.
- The Indian Antiquary: A Journal of Oriental Research, 15,
- Warder, K. (2004). Indian Buddhism. Delhi.
- Watters, (1905). On Yuan Chwang’s Travels in India, Vol. II. London Royal Asiatic Society.
***
REPORT ON THE JOURNEY OF THE PILGRIMAGE, CHARITY,
AND BUDDHIST CONFERENCES IN KOREA, INDIA, AND SRI LANKA
From June 22th to July 20th, 2023
(Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong)
Time passed quickly. The journey of a one-month Buddhist pilgrimage held by the Huong Sen Buddhist Temple included visiting Buddhist noble sites, holding Buddhist conferences, and doing charity programs in three countries: Korea, India, and Sri Lanka finished with many memorable achievements. We are sincerely grateful to the Most Venerables, monks and nuns, and fellow Buddhists from near and far for supporting the program of sponsoring monks and nuns to study abroad and perform charitable activities in the three countries. The list of benefactors is posted on the website: https://huongsentemple. com/index.php/vn/tin-tuc/tu-thien/8182-tu-thien-nam-2023 and Fanpage: Huong Sen.
The delegation of more than 15 people included the Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong (the Abbess of Huong Sen Buddhist temple), Bhikṣuṇī Tri Minh (a sister of Ven. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong), Bhikṣuṇī Vien Bao, Bhikṣuṇī Vien Dao, Bhikṣuṇī Duc Tri, Bhikṣuṇī Vien Nhuan, Bhikṣuṇī Vien Giac, Novice Vien
Lanh, Vien Le, Vien Phuong, Vien Dao, and Truc Nghiem, along with tour guides such as Ms. Lunah Kim (for the Korean Tour), Bhante Ratna and Mr. Ravi (for the India Tour) and Ven. Dr. Kahawatte Siri Sumedha and Mr. Lakman Anu (for Sri Lanka Tour)… All made this a meaningful trip.
1.
KOREA
From 23rd to 30th June 2023, the 18th Sakyadhita International Conference on Buddhist Women was held by the International Buddhist Bhikṣuṇī Association at Coex Hall, Bongeunsa Temple, Seoul, Korea with the participation of more than 3,000 delegates from many countries around the world. In it, at 3 pm on June 25, Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong gave a lecture (workshop) titled “Virtues to Help Buddhist Women Face Today’s Precarious World.”
After the conference, the delegation visited Korean temples such as Woljeongsa, Baekdamsa, and Naksansa which are majestic and magnificent temples of Korean Buddhism.
2. INDIA
At 2:00 pm on July 1st, 2023, the group took a flight to Delhi in India and arrived at Sharda University, Greater Noida City, Uttar Pradesh State, in order to attend a Buddhist seminar which was co-organized by Ven. Dr. Thich Hanh Chanh and Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong. The theme of conference was “Buddhism–A Historical and Practical Vision,” where Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong gave a presentation on the topic, “Buddhist Philosophy Has Come to the American Universities.” There were nearly one hundred Vietnamese monastic researchers and scholars from many Indian Universities who attended. The seminar had 23 presentations/papers to be
collected, which will be compiled into a book “Buddhism: A Historical and Practical Vision” which was interpreted into a Vietnamese version: “Phật Giáo - Tầm Nhìn Lịch Sử và Thực Hành.” In the seminar, these two books and some other books (from the Bao Anh Lac Bookshelf of Huong Sen Buddhist Temple) were offered to the speakers and participants along with an envelope of money and books (from the Bao Anh Lac Bookshelf of Huong Sen Buddhist Temple) for a remembrance.
Next day, early in the morning at 6:00 am on July 2nd, 2023, the group took a flight to Kolkata City, West Bengal State, to attend the second Buddhist Seminar in India. It was held by Venerable Abbot Dr. Buddha Priya Mahathero and Ven.
Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong. There were more than one hundred scholars, researchers, writers, professors, and devotees who attended the seminar with the theme: “The Great Contribution of Buddhism for World Peace and Social Harmony” in which Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong presented the topic titled “The Great Contribution for World Peace and Social Harmony of Emperor Asoka of India and Emperor Trần Nhân Tông of Vietnam.”
It was a pleasure that in this seminar, Venerable Dr. Buddha Priya Mahathero and his SUSWM association complemented Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong for the contribution of Buddhism and publishing of 80 books which she composed for the Bao Anh Lac Bookshelf (https://www.huongsentemple.com/index. php/vn/kinh-sach/tu-sach-bao-anh-lac), so they granted her many awards, such as the International Peace Award, Siddhartha United Social Welfare Mission (SUSWM) Great Service Awards, SUSWM World Award, Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar Prajna Ratna Award, Awards from Nanded, Maharashtra…
After that, at 5 pm, the delegate of Huong Sen Temple distributed gifts to local needy families in Kolkata and around Siddhartha United Social Welfare Mission Temple in the West Bengal state.
From 3rd to 6th of July 2023, the group visited the Buddhist holy sites such as Lumbini (where Prince Siddhartha was born), Kushinagar (where the Buddha entered Nirvana), Vaishali (where the Bhikṣuṇī Assembly was established and the Buddha often dwelt on rainy retreat seasons), the ancient Buddhist University of Nalanda (Nalanda Ruins), the modern Nalanda University (where Bhikṣuṇī Viên Nhuận, disciple of Ven. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong is studying) in Rajgir of Bihar state. Later on that evening of July 6th, under the noble witness of the Most Venerable Ratna, the Abbot of Bangladesh Temple (Bodh Gaya), Ven. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong and ten Buddhist nuns held a haircutting ceremony to give the ten novice precepts to Buddhist laywomen including Vien Lanh, Vien Le (the aunt of Ven. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong), and Vien
Phuong (Ven. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong’s elder sister) at the
sacred Bodhi tree, where the Buddha was enlightened.
On the morning of July 7th, 2023, the group went to Kieu Dam Di Nunnery in Bodh Gaya, Bihar state, in conjunction with the Ven. Bhikṣuṇī Nhu Phung (the temple’s official) to distribute 200 gifts to the poor, the disabled, and orphans in the locality. At the same time, Bhante Ratna and Bhikṣuṇī TN
Vien Nhuan, Novice Vien Le, and Novice Vien Phuong went to offer money and books to local temples in Bodhgaya.
On 8th and 9th of July, 2023, after having visited Deer Park, Sarnath, Varanasi, and the capital Delhi, the delegation had to leave India for Sri Lanka. We took a flight to the Buddhist country of Ceylon, an ocean island known as the “Pearl of the Far East,” where the oldest sacred Bodhi Tree in the world and the Buddha’s Tooth Relic have been worshiped. It is also the place where the Pali Canon was written on Palm leaves.
- SRI LANKA
On the afternoon of July 10th, 2023, the delegation visited Avukana Ancient Rock Temple with the tallest standing Buddha in Ceylon (Avukana Royal Rock Buddha Statue), Ayodhya Ela Kalawewa Lake, Wijithapara Rajamaha Viharaya Temple in Avukana, and so on. On the way back to the Resort Hotel, the group passed a temple under construction with about 50 statues of monks going for alms in four directions and a statue of the Buddha meditating in the middle. This is a fairly common architectural pattern in Ceylon temples.
On July 11th, 2023, the group visited the world’s oldest Bodhi Tree (extracted from the Bodhi tree where Buddha attained enlightenment), Sirimaha Bodhi Tree in the ancient capital of Anuradhapura, Ratnamali Maha Chetiya Stupa, the Anula Silmatha nunnery Temple lead by the abbess Bhikṣuṇī Arama, Abhayagiri Stupa, Jethavana tower, and Mihintale ruins (where Bhikkhu Mihintale, son of King Ashoka spread Buddhism to Ceylon) has 68 hidden caves sitting deep under the foothills, and its architecture is very elegant and simple, built by ascetic hermits.
On July 12th, 2023, the delegation visited Dambulla Royal Rock Caves, where there are many large stone Buddha statues (for meditating, entering Nirvana, and standing to preach Dhamma talks) and the statues of the Brahmas were carved on the walls of the natural rock caves and painted in many beautiful colors. After that, the group paid respects to Vatadage Buddhist Monument, Madirigiriye, and then visited Giritle National Park (with many elephants and wild animals) and the local lake in the afternoon.
On the morning of July 13th, 2023, the group was happy and fortunate to visit and pay homage to the Tripitaka which was written in Palm Leaves and has been worshiped at Aloka Vihara Matale Temple. After having lunch, the group visited Srivijayathilakaramaya Bogahakotuwa Temple in Matale, where the Dhamma elder brother of Dr. Sumedha Thera is an abbot. There are 10 young novices who are studying at that temple.
At 2 pm on the same day, under the support and guidance of the Most Venerable Royal Pandith Talatuoye Samiddhi Siri Maha Thero (the Dhamma younger brother of the Most Venerable Dr. Sumedha Thera), the President of Sri Vidyasekhara Pirivena School, Huong Sen Buddhist pilgrimage offered food to the poor at Koombiyangoda Maha Vihara Temple, Matale district, Sri Lanka. In addition to donating gifts, Huong Sen Buddhist temple made money offerings to 30 of the Most Venerables, 40 monks studying at the Buddhist College, and 20 teachers working here.
On the morning of July 14th, 2023, the group visited and paid homage to the Buddha’s Sacred Tooth Relics in Kandy, Sri Lanka. At 2 pm on the same day, the delegation attended a Buddhist seminar at the Educational Department of the University of Peradeniya in Kandy with the topic, “Global Spread of Buddhism with Special Reference to Sri Lanka.” There were ten speakers, one of whom was Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong who gave a presentation on the topic, “Buddhism from Ceylon Island to the United States.”
On July 15th, 2023, the delegation visited two monastic temples and one nunnery temple. The first one, Truc Lam Monastery (International Buddhist Meditation Center) was built
by the Venerable Phap Quang (a disciple of the Most Venerable Thien Y living in Thu Duc, Vietnam). The abbot was not at temple, but his disciple, Rev. Phap Bao and few novices at the monastery welcomed and treated us, guests from far away, to a vegetarian lunch. The familiar Vietnamese flavor compelled the members to eat to their heart’s content, after nearly a month of eating Korean, Indian, and Ceylon dishes. While enjoying braised young ribs, vegetable soup, and delicious fried tofu at the temple, the host also offer the group “food to go” to eat at the hotel in the afternoon.
After having said goodbye to the monk and novices at Truc Lam Zen Monastery in the cold highland of Kandy (like Đà Lạt), the group visited Bodimalu Aramaya Nunnery Temple led by Ven. Bhikṣuṇī Abbess Uduwala Sudhammika. The temple is located at Gampolawatta Gampola, near the house of Dr. Sumedha Thera’s brother, so the brother’s family often goes to this temple to offer food and cultivate weekly. The Huong Sen delegation also donated rice, salt, cooking oil, and some amount of money to the temple and took the souvenir photos with the abbess and nun novices there.
Then, the delegation visited Nigrodha Khetta Pirivena Telembugala Gelioya Training Center for Bhikkhus led by Ven. Abbot Godamune Pannakitthi Nakaya Maha Thero Sanghanayaka. After that, the last temple that the group visited and made offerings during the day was Gatame Rajopawanarama Temple in the Peradeniya district, led by Ven. Abbot Keppetiyagoda Siriwimala Nayake Maha Thero. There are about 70 monks and nuns dwelling and studying at the temple. This was a good time to donate the chocolate candy and some money to young novices there.
At 2:00 pm on July 16th, 2023, the delegation arrived in capital of Colombo to attend a second Buddhist seminar in Sri Lanka at the Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society Temple, led by the Most Venerable Prof. Medagama Nandawansa Thera. There were about one hundred professors, scholars, academic students, monks, and nuns who came from Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Laos, Burma, Thailand... to attend. The topic of the Conference was “Academic Seminar on Buddhism in Sri Lanka during the Period of the 19th to 21st Centuries.” Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong was one of twelve speakers. Her topic was “The Contributions of Sri Lankan Buddhist Writers.” At this temple, there were about 70 young novices, so the Vietnamese American Huong Sen Pilgrimage prepared sweets, cakes, and some money in order to sow wholesome seeds.
In 17th, 18th, and 19th of July were the last three days to visit and make offerings to eight Buddhist nunneries in Colombo and surrounding areas such as Newgala Meditation Center Monastery, Sasanaloka Bhikṣuṇī Asram, and Sri Sangamiththa Dhamma School (Galigamuwa Town, Kegalle), Sri Sunanda Temple (Alpitiya Galupitamada), Khemaramaya Temple (Indiparape, Mirigama), Vishakaramaya Temple (Galgamuva, Veyangoda), Pradeepaloka Temple, Uppalawannaramaya Temple, Sakyadhita Training and Meditation Center (Gorakana, Panadura) and Nunnery Training Center (Sri Lanka’s First Bhikṣuṇī Training Center and International Faculty of Buddhist Studies (BTC and IFBS), Kananvila, Horana), and others…
In short, a one-month Buddhist pilgrimage to the three countries of Korea, India, and Sri Lanka has ended, leaving us with many emotions that will remain forever. The images of meditating and chanting in the Buddhist noble places remain forever in the members’ hearts, very hard to fade. The day of ordination for sowing wholesome seeds under the Bodhi tree, where the Buddha was enlightened, is sacred and indescribable. In addition, the Buddhist conferences aim to exchange Buddhist knowledge with the Most Venerables, monastics, and academic scholars around the world. The records of these conferences were condensed into anthologies to preserve memories of the pilgrimage. Besides, the charitable activities of sharing food and material goods with the poor are so meaningful, especially in the spirit of “The intact leaves protect the tattered ones.”
Namo the Great Meritorious Bodhisattvas!
THE GALLERY PICTURES
Buddhist Studies Conference, Sharda University,
Greater Noida, UP, India, 1st July, 2023
Banner
- Sharda University
2. Reading the Buddha’s name before seminar
Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong and Student Nuns at the auditorium
4. Ven. Dr. Hanh Chanh offers the flowers to Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong
- Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong at the hallway of Sharda University
6. Listening to the Speaker
- Dr. Hanh Chanh and Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong at the stage
8. Rev. Thiện Tâm MC for the seminar
- The Monastics
10. Offering books
- Dr. Hanh Chanh starts with the welcome speech
- The Vietnamese Researchers and Scholars
- Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong presents her paper
14. The Monastic Assembly
- Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong sincerely offers to Sangha
16. Ven. Dr. Hanh Chanh raises a question on Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong’s paper
- Minh Phu presents his paper
18. Rev. TN Vien Nhuan presents her paper
- TN Duc Tri presents her paper
20. A group of Speakers
Together
22. Offering flowers
- A group photo
24. A smiling group
- Books on the table
26. English Book: Buddhism - Historical and Practical Vision
Vietnamese Book: Phật Giáo - Tầm Nhìn Lịch Sử và Xã Hội
***
BẢO ANH LẠC BOOKSHELF
Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương composed
THE VIETNAMESE BOOKS
- Bồ-tát và Tánh Không Trong Kinh Tạng Pali và Đại Thừa (Boddhisattva and Sunyata in the Early and Developed Buddhist Traditions).
- Ban Mai Xứ Ấn (The Dawn in India) - Tuyển tập các Tiểu Luận Phật Giáo (Collection of Buddhist Essays), (3 tập).
- Vườn Nai – Chiếc Nôi (Phật Giáo Deer Park–The Cradle of Buddhism).
- Quy Y Tam Bảo và Năm Giới (Take Refuge in Three Gems and Keep the Five Precepts).
- Vòng Luân Hồi (The Cycle of Life).
- Hoa Tuyết Milwaukee (Snowflake in Milwaukee).
- Luân Hồi trong Lăng Kính Lăng Nghiêm (The Rebirth in Śūrangama Sūtra).
- Nghi Thức Hộ Niệm, Cầu Siêu (The Ritual for the Deceased).
- Quan Âm Quảng Trần (The Commentary of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva).
- Nữ Tu và Tù Nhân Hoa Kỳ (A Nun and American Inmates).
- Nếp Sống Tỉnh Thức của Đức Đạt Lai Lạt Ma Thứ XIV (The Awakened Mind of the 14th Dalai Lama).
- A-Hàm: Mưa pháp chuyển hóa phiền não (Agama – A Dharma Rain transforms the Defilement), 2 tập.
- Góp Từng Hạt Nắng Perris (Collection of Sunlight in Perris).
- Pháp Ngữ của Kinh Kim Cang (The Key Words of Vajracchedikā-Prajñāpāramitā-Sūtra).
- Tập Thơ Nhạc Nắng Lăng Nghiêm (Songs and Poems of Śūraṅgama Sunlight).
- Nét Bút Bên Song Cửa (Reflections at the Temple Window).
- Máy Nghe MP3 Hương Sen (Hương Sen Digital Mp3 Radio Speaker): Các Bài Giảng, Sách, Bài viết và Thơ Nhạc của Thích Nữ Giới Hương (383/201 bài).
- DVD Giới Thiệu về Chùa Hương Sen, USA (Introduction on Huong Sen Temple).
- Ni Giới Việt Nam Hoằng Pháp tại Hoa Kỳ (Sharing the Dharma - Vietnamese Buddhist Nuns in the United States).
- Tuyển Tập 40 Năm Tu Học & Hoằng Pháp của Ni sư Giới Hương (Forty Years in the Dharma: A Life of Study and Service—Venerable Bhikkhuni Giới Hương), Thích Nữ Viên Quang, TN Viên Nhuận, TN Viên Tiến, and TN Viên Khuông.
- Tập Thơ Nhạc Lối Về Sen Nở (Songs and Poems of Lotus Blooming on the Way).
- Nghi Thức Công Phu Khuya – Thần Chú Thủ Lăng Nghiêm (Śūraṅgama Mantra).
- Nghi Thức Cầu An – Kinh Phổ Môn (The Universal Door Sūtra).
- Nghi Thức Cầu An – Kinh Dược Sư (The Medicine Buddha Sūtra).
- Nghi Thức Sám Hối Hồng Danh (The Sūtra of Confession at many Buddha Titles).
- Nghi Thức Công Phu Chiều – Mông Sơn Thí Thực (The Ritual Donating Food to Hungry Ghosts).
- Khóa Tịnh Độ – Kinh A Di Đà (The Amitabha Buddha Sūtra).
- Nghi Thức Cúng Linh và Cầu Siêu (The Rite for Deceased and Funeral Home).
- Nghi Lễ Hàng Ngày - 50 Kinh Tụng và các Lễ Vía trong Năm (The Daily Chanting Rituals and Annual Ceremonies).
- Hương Đạo Trong Đời 2022 (Tuyển tập 60 Bài Thi trong Cuộc Thi Viết Văn Ứng Dụng Phật Pháp 2022 - A Collection of Writings on the Practicing of Buddhism in Daily Life in the Writing Contest 2022).
- Hương Pháp 2022 (Tuyển Tập Các Bài Thi Trúng Giải Cuộc Thi Viết Văn Ứng Dụng Phật Pháp 2022 - A Collection of the Winning Writings on the Practicing of Buddhism in Daily Life in the Writing Contest 2022).
- Giới Hương - Thơm Ngược Gió Ngàn (Giới Hương – The Virtue Fragrance Against the Thousand Winds), Nguyên Hà.
- Pháp Ngữ Kinh Hoa Nghiêm (Buddha-avatamsaka-nāma-mahāvaipulya-sūtra) (2 tập).
- Tinh Hoa Kinh Hoa Nghiêm (The Core of Buddha-avatamsaka-nāma-mahāvaipulya-sūtra).
- Phật Giáo – Tầm Nhìn Lịch Sử Và Thực Hành (Buddhism: A Historical and Practical Vision). Hiệu đính: Thích Hạnh Chánh và Thích Nữ Giới Hương.
- Nhật ký Hành Thiền Vipassana và Kinh Tứ Niệm Xứ (Diary: Practicing Vipassana and the Four Foundations of Mindfulness Sutta)
- Nghi cúng Giao Thừa (New Year's Eve Ceremony)
- Nghi cúng Rằm Tháng Giêng (the Ceremony of the First Month’s Full Moon)
- Nghi thức Lễ Phật Đản (The Buddha Birthday’s Ceremony)
- Nghi thức Vu Lan (The Ullambana Festival or Parent Day)
- Lễ Vía Quan Âm (The Avolokiteshvara Day)
- Nghi cúng Thánh Tổ Kiều Đàm Di (The Death Anniversary of Mahapajapati Gotami)
- Nghi thức cúng Tổ và Giác linh Sư trưởng (The Ancestor Day)
1.2. THE ENGLISH BOOKS
- Boddhisattva and Sunyata in the Early and Developed Buddhist Traditions.
- Rebirth Views in the Śūraṅgama Sūtra.
- Commentary of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva.
- The Key Words in Vajracchedikā Sūtra.
- Sārnātha-The Cradle of Buddhism in the Archeological View.
- Take Refuge in the Three Gems and Keep the Five Precepts.
- Cycle of Life.
- Forty Years in the Dharma: A Life of Study and Service—Venerable Bhikkhuni Giới Hương.
- Sharing the Dharma -Vietnamese Buddhist Nuns in the United States.
- A Vietnamese Buddhist Nun and American Inmates.
- Daily Monastic Chanting.
- Weekly Buddhist Discourse Chanting.
- Practice Meditation and Pure Land.
- The Ceremony for Peace.
- The Lunch Offering Ritual.
- The Ritual Offering Food to Hungry Ghosts.
- The Pureland Course of Amitabha Sutra.
- The Medicine Buddha Sutra.
- The New Year Ceremony.
- The Great Parinirvana Ceremony.
- The Buddha’s Birthday Ceremony.
- The Ullambana Festival (Parents’ Day).
- The Marriage Ceremony.
- The Blessing Ceremony for The Deceased.
- The Ceremony Praising Ancestral Masters.
- The Enlightened Buddha Ceremony.
- The Uposatha Ceremony (Reciting Precepts).
- Buddhism: A Historical and Practical Vision. Edited by Ven. Dr. Thich Hanh Chanh and Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong.
- Contribution of Buddhism For World Peace & Social Harmony. Edited by Ven. Dr. Buddha Priya Mahathero and Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong.
- Global Spread of Buddhism with Special Reference to Sri Lanka. Buddhist Studies Seminar in Kandy University. Edited by Prof. Ven. Medagama Nandawansa and Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong.
- Buddhism In Sri Lanka During The Period of 19th to 21st Centuries. Buddhist Studies Seminar in Colombo. Edited by Prof. Ven. Medagama Nandawansa and Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong.
- Diary: Practicing Vipassana and the Four Foundations of Mindfulness Sutta.
1.3.THE BILINGUAL BOOKS (VIETNAMESE-ENGLISH)
- Bản Tin Hương Sen: Xuân, Phật Đản, Vu Lan (Hương Sen Newsletter: Spring, Buddha Birthday and Vu Lan, annual/ Mỗi Năm).
- Danh Ngôn Nuôi Dưỡng Nhân Cách - Good Sentences Nurture a Good Manner.
- Văn Hóa Đặc Sắc của Nước Nhật Bản-Exploring the Unique Culture of Japan.
- Sống An Lạc dù Đời không Đẹp như Mơ - Live Peacefully though Life is not Beautiful as a Dream.
- Hãy Nói Lời Yêu Thương-Words of Love and Understanding.
- Văn Hóa Cổ Kim qua Hành Hương Chiêm Bái -The Ancient- Present Culture in Pilgrim.
- Nghệ Thuật Biết Sống - Art of Living.
- Dharamshala - Hành Hương Vùng Đất Thiêng, Ấn Độ, Dharamshala - Pilgrimage to the Sacred Land, India.
1.4.THE TRANSLATED BOOKS
- Xá Lợi Của Đức Phật (Relics of the Buddha), Tham Weng Yew.
- Sen Nở Nơi Chốn Tử Tù (Lotus in Prison), many authors.
- Chùa Việt Nam Hải Ngoại (Overseas Vietnamese Buddhist Temples).
- Việt Nam Danh Lam Cổ Tự (The Famous Ancient Buddhist Temples in Vietnam).
- Hương Sen, Thơ và Nhạc – (Lotus Fragrance, Poem and Music).
- Phật Giáo-Một Bậc Đạo Sư, Nhiều Truyền Thống (Buddhism: One Teacher – Many Traditions),Đức Đạt Lai Lạt Ma 14th & Ni Sư Thubten Chodren.
- Cách Chuẩn Bị Chết và Giúp Người Sắp Chết-Quan Điểm Phật Giáo (Preparing for Death and Helping the Dying – A Buddhist Perspective).
2.BUDDHIST MUSIC ALBUMS
from POEMS of THÍCH NỮ GIỚI HƯƠNG
- Đào Xuân Lộng Ý Kinh (The Buddha’s Teachings Reflected in Cherry Flowers).
- Niềm Tin Tam Bảo (Trust in the Three Gems).
- Trăng Tròn Nghìn Năm Đón Chờ Ai (Who Is the Full Moon Waiting for for Over a Thousand Years?).
- Ánh Trăng Phật Pháp (Moonlight of Dharma-Buddha).
- Bình Minh Tỉnh Thức (Awakened Mind at the Dawn) (Piano Variations for Meditation).
- Tiếng Hát Già Lam (Song from Temple).
- Cảnh Đẹp Chùa Xưa (The Magnificent, Ancient Buddhist Temple).
- Karaoke Hoa Ưu Đàm Đã Nở (An Udumbara Flower Is Blooming).
- Hương Sen Ca (Hương Sen’s Songs)
- Về Chùa Vui Tu (Happily Go to Temple for Spiritual Practices)
- Gọi Nắng Xuân Về (Call the Spring Sunlight).
- Đệ Tử Phật. Thơ: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Nhạc: Uy Thi Ca & Giác An, volume 4, năm 2023.
Mời xem: http://www.huongsentemple.com/index.php/kinh-sach/tu-sach-bao-anh-lac
BUDDHISM: A HISTORICAL AND PRACTICAL VISION
Tác giả: Bảo Anh Lạc Bookshelf 76 - Thích Nữ Giới Hương
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