The Four Noble Truths

The Four Noble Truths are the central doctrine of Buddhism; they are said to provide a conceptual framework for all of Buddhist thought.

The four noble truths are:^{[lower-alpha 1]}

The truth of dukkha (suffering, anxiety, unsatisfactoriness)
The truth of the origin of dukkha
The truth of the cessation of dukkha
The truth of the path leading to the cessation of dukkha

The first noble truth explains the nature of dukkha. Dukkha is commonly translated as “suffering”, “anxiety”, “unsatisfactoriness”, “unease”, etc., and it is said to have the following three aspects:^{[lower-alpha 2]}

The obvious physical and mental suffering associated with birth, growing old, illness and dying.
The anxiety or stress of trying to hold on to things that are constantly changing.
A basic unsatisfactoriness pervading all forms of existence, due to the fact that all forms of life are changing, impermanent and without any inner core or substance. On this level, the term indicates a lack of satisfaction, a sense that things never measure up to our expectations or standards.

The central importance of dukkha in Buddhist philosophy has caused some observers to consider Buddhism to be a pessimistic philosophy. However, the emphasis on dukkha is not intended to present a pessimistic view of life, but rather to present a realistic practical assessment of the human condition—that all beings must experience suffering and pain at some point in their lives, including the inevitable sufferings of illness, aging, and death.^[6] Contemporary Buddhist teachers and translators emphasize that while the central message of Buddhism is optimistic, the Buddhist view of our situation in life (the conditions that we live in) is neither pessimistic nor optimistic, but realistic.^{[lower-alpha 3]}

The second noble truth is that the origin of dukkha can be known. Within the context of the four noble truths, the origin of dukkha is commonly explained as craving or thirst (Pali: tanha) conditioned by ignorance (Pali: avijja). On a deeper level, the root cause of dukkha is identified as ignorance (avijja) of the true nature of things. The third noble truth is that the complete cessation of dukkha is possible, and the fourth noble truth identifies a path to this cessation.

According to the Buddhist tradition, the Buddha first taught the four noble truths in the very first teaching he gave after he attained enlightenment, as recorded in The Discourse That Sets Turning the Wheel of Truth (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta), and he further clarified their meaning in many subsequent teachings.^{[lower-alpha 4]}

The two main traditions of Buddhism, the Theravada and Mahayana, have different approaches to learning about the four noble truths and putting them into practice. The Theravada tradition strongly emphasizes reading and contemplating The Discourse That Sets Turning the Wheel of Truth—the first discourse of the Buddha—as a method of study and practice. In the Mahayana tradition, practitioners are more likely to learn about the four noble truths through studying various Mahayana commentaries, and less likely to study the first discourse directly. The Mahayana commentaries typically present the four noble truths in the context of the Mahayana path of the bodhisattva.^[7]

Conceptual framework for Buddhist thought

The Four Noble Truths are regarded as central to the teachings of Buddhism; they are said to provide a unifying theme, or conceptual framework, for all of Buddhist thought. According to the Buddhist tradition, the Buddha compared these four truths to the footprints of an elephant: just as the footprints of all the other animals can fit within the footprint of an elephant, in the same way, all the teachings of the Buddha are contained within the teachings on the four noble truths.^{[lower-alpha 5]}^{[lower-alpha 4]}^{[lower-alpha 6]}

According to tradition, the Buddha taught on the four noble truths repeatedly throughout his lifetime, continually expanding and clarifying his meaning.^{[lower-alpha 4]} Walpola Rahula explains:^[8]

The heart of the Buddha's teaching lies in the Four Noble Truths (Cattāri Ariyasaccāni) which he expounded in his very first sermon to his old colleagues, the five ascetics, at Isipatana (modern Sarnath) near Benares. In this sermon, as we have it in the original texts, these four Truths are given briefly. But there are innumerable places in the early Buddhist scriptures where they are explained again and again, with greater detail and in different ways. If we study the Four Noble Truths with the help of these references and explanations, we get a fairly good and accurate account of the essential teachings of the Buddha according to the original texts.

Contemporary Tibetan teacher Geshe Tashi Tsering emphasizes the importance of the four noble truths for the individual path:^[14]

The four noble truths lay down the blueprint for the entire body of the Buddha’s thought and practice and set up the basic framework of the individual’s path to enlightenment. They encapsulate all of Buddhist philosophy. Therefore studying, meditating, and fully understanding this teaching is very important, because without an understanding of the four noble truths it is impossible to fully integrate the concepts and practices of Buddhism into our daily lives.

Explanation

The first five disciples receiving instructions on the four noble truths. (The Buddha's hand is seen at right.)

The teachings on the Four Noble Truths explain the nature of dukkha (suffering, anxiety, unsatisfactoriness^{[lower-alpha 7]}), its causes, its cessation, and the path leading to its cessation.

The four truths

The four noble truths are:^{[lower-alpha 1]}

The truth of dukkha (suffering, anxiety, unsatisfactoriness^{[lower-alpha 7]})
The truth of the origin of dukkha
The truth of the cessation of dukkha
The truth of the path leading to the cessation of dukkha

First truth: dukkha

Main article: Dukkha

The first noble truth is the truth of dukkha. Within the Buddhist tradition, the term dukkha is commonly examined within three different patterns or categories:^{[lower-alpha 8]}

The dukkha of ordinary suffering (dukkha-dukkha) - the physical and mental suffering associated with birth, growing old, illness and dying.
The dukkha produced by change (vipariṇāma-dukkha) - the anxiety or stress of trying to hold onto concepts of situations, people, or things that are constantly changing.
The dukkha of conditioning (saṃkhāra-dukkha) - a basic unsatisfactoriness pervading all forms of existence, due to ignorance of the fact that all forms of life are changing, impermanent and without any inner core or substance. On this level, the term indicates a lack of satisfaction, a sense that things never measure up to our expectations or standards.

Contemporary translators of Buddhist texts use a variety of English words to convey the different aspects of dukkha, such as: anxiety, stress, frustration, unease, unsatisfactoriness, etc.^{[lower-alpha 7]} As one source notes: "Dukkha contains not only the ordinary meaning of suffering, but also includes deeper ideas such as imperfection, pain, impermanence, disharmony, discomfort, irritation, or awareness of incompleteness and insufficiency".^{[web 7]}

The central importance of dukkha in Buddhist philosophy has caused some observers to consider Buddhism to be a pessimistic philosophy.^{[lower-alpha 3]} However, the emphasis on dukkha is not intended to present a pessimistic view of life, but rather to present a realistic practical assessment of the human condition—that all beings must experience suffering and pain at some point in their lives, including the inevitable sufferings of illness, aging, and death.^[6]Contemporary Buddhist teachers and translators emphasize that while the central message of Buddhism is optimistic, the Buddhist view of our situation in life (the conditions that we live in) is neither pessimistic nor optimistic, but realistic.^{[lower-alpha 3]}

The Buddha acknowledged that there is both happiness and sorrow in the world, but he taught that even when we have some kind of happiness, it is impermanent and subject to change. And due to this unstable, impermanent nature, everything we experience seems to have the quality of dukkha or unsatisfactoriness. Therefore, unless we can gain insight into the truth, and understand what is really able to give us happiness, and what is unable to provide happiness, the experience of unsatisfactoriness or dissatisfaction will persist.^[6]^[25]^[26]^[27]

Traleg Kyabgon explains:^[27]

Normally we think our happiness is contingent upon external circumstances and situations, rather than upon our own inner attitude toward things, or toward life in general. The Buddha was saying that dissatisfaction is part of life, even if we are seeking happiness and even if we manage to find temporary happiness. The very fact that it is temporary means that sooner or later the happiness is going to pass. So the Buddha said that unless we understand this and see how pervasive dissatisfaction or duhkha is, it is impossible for us to start looking for real happiness.

Second truth: origin of dukkha

Main article: Samudaya sacca

The second noble truth is the truth of the origin of dukkha. Within the context of the four noble truths, the origin (Pali: samudaya) of dukkha appears as craving (Pali: tanha) arising from wrong knowledge (Pali: avijja).^[28]^{[web 1]}^{[lower-alpha 9]} This craving runs on three channels:^[28]^[29]^[30]

Craving for sense-pleasures (kama-tanha): this is craving for sense objects which provide pleasant feeling, or craving for sensory pleasures.
Craving to be (bhava-tanha): this is craving to be something, to unite with an experience. This includes craving to be solid and ongoing, to be a being that has a past and a future,^[31] and craving to prevail and dominate over others.
Craving not to be (vibhava-tanha): this is craving to not experience the world, and to be nothing; a wish to be separated from painful feelings.^{[lower-alpha 10]}

Ignorance (Pali: avijja) can be defined as ignorance of the meaning and implication of the four noble truths.^[32] On a deeper level, it refers to a misunderstanding of the nature of the self and reality.^{[lower-alpha 11]}

Another common explanation presents the cause of dukkha as disturbing emotions (Sanskrit: kleshas) unconsciously arising from ignorance (Sanskrit: avidya).^{[lower-alpha 12]} In this context, it is common to identify three root disturbing emotions, called the three poisons,^[33]^[34] as the root cause of suffering or dukkha. These three poisons are:

Ignorance (Sanskrit: avidya or moha): misunderstanding of the nature of reality; bewilderment.
Attachment (Sanskrit: raga): attachment to pleasurable experiences.
Aversion (Sanskrit: dvesha): a fear of getting what we don't want, or not getting what we do want.^{[lower-alpha 13]}

Third truth: cessation of dukkha

Fourth truth: path to the cessation of dukkha

The Dharma wheel, often used to represent the Noble Eightfold Path

Main article: Noble Eightfold Path

The fourth noble truth is the path to the cessation of dukkha. This path is called the Noble Eightfold Path, and it is considered to be the essence of Buddhist practice.^[40] The eightfold path consists of Right View, Right Intention, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration.

While the first three truths are primarily concerned with understanding the nature of dukkha (suffering, anxiety, stress) and its causes, the fourth truth presents a practical method for overcoming dukkha.^[41] The path consists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions, that when developed together, lead to the cessation of dukkha.^[42]^{[web 1]} Ajahn Sucitto describes the path as "a mandala of interconnected factors that support and moderate each other."^[42]

Thus, the eight items of the path are not to be understood as stages, in which each stage is completed before moving on to the next. Rather, they are to be understood as eight significant dimensions of one's behaviour—mental, spoken, and bodily—that operate in dependence on one another; taken together, they define a complete path, or way of living.^[43]

Experiential knowledge

In the Buddhist tradition, the four noble truths, and Buddhist philosophy in general, are understood to be based on the personal experience of the Buddha. This understanding is implied in the term "noble truths," which is a translation of the Pali terms ariya sacca (Sanskrit: arya satya). The Pali term sacca means "truth" and "real" or "actual thing." In this context, contemporary Buddhist scholar Rupert Gethin explains that the four noble truths are not asserted as propositional truths or creeds; rather, they are understood as "true things" or "realities" that the Buddha experienced.^{[lower-alpha 14]}^{[lower-alpha 15]}

Contemporary Buddhist teacher Thanissaro Bhikkhu emphasizes the same point, noting that the Four Noble Truths are best understood as categories of experience, rather than as beliefs. Thanissaro Bhikkhu writes:

These four truths are best understood, not as beliefs, but as categories of experience. They offer an alternative to the ordinary way we categorize what we can know and describe–[we ordinarily categorize things] in terms of me/not me, and being/not being.^{[lower-alpha 16]} These ordinary categories create trouble, for the attempt to maintain full being for one's sense of "me" is a stressful effort doomed to failure, in that all of the components of that "me" are inconstant, stressful, and thus not worthy of identifying as "me" or "mine". [...][T]he study of the four noble truths is aimed first at understanding these four categories, and then at applying them to experience so that one may act properly toward each of the categories and thus attain the highest, most total happiness possible.^{[web 6]}

The Tibetan Buddhist lama Chögyam Trungpa emphasizes that cessation is a personal experience.^[45] Chögyam Trungpa explains:

The truth of cessation is a personal discovery. It is not mystical and does not have any connotations of religion or psychology. It is simply your experience... It is like experiencing instantaneous good health: you have no cold, no flu, no aches, and no pains in your body. You feel perfectly well, absolutely refreshed and wakeful! Such an experience is possible.^[45]

Illness, diagnosis, and cure

In the Buddhist tradition, the Buddha is often compared to a great physician, and his teachings are compared to medicine. The teachings on the four noble truths in particular are related to a medical diagnosis, as follows:^{[lower-alpha 17]}

The truth of dukkha: identifying the illness and the nature of the illness (the diagnosis)
The truth of origin: identifying the causes of the illness (the etiology)
The truth of cessation: identifying a cure for the illness (the prognosis)
The truth of the path: recommending a treatment for the illness that can bring about a cure (the prescription)

This analogy is said to emphasize the compassion of the Buddha—that he was motivated by the desire to relieve the suffering of beings.^[46]^[48] It also emphasizes that the Buddha was presented as physician, or healer of the spirit, rather than as a meta-physician or someone who spoke of supernatural powers.^{[lower-alpha 18]} For example, Pico Iyer states: "The Buddha generally presented himself as more physician than metaphysician: if an arrow is sticking out of your side, he famously said, don’t argue about where it came from or who made it; just pull it out. You make your way to happiness not by fretting about it or trafficking in New Age affirmations, but simply by finding the cause of your suffering, and then attending to it, as any doctor (of mind or body) might do."^{[web 12]}

Contemporary Buddhist teacher Tamara Engel also emphasizes the Buddha's reluctance to comment on metaphysical matters:^{[web 10]}

The brilliance of this medical model is that the Buddha offers a complete spiritual path that does not depend on metaphysical speculation or belief—no speculation or belief about God. No leap of faith is required. The illness the Buddha refers to is a particular kind of suffering, and there is nothing metaphysical about it. We all experience it. In fact, it is said that the Buddha would never enter into a metaphysical discussion. He stated, “I teach one thing and one thing only. Suffering and the end of suffering.”

There are many examples both in the original suttas and in traditional and contemporary commentaries that compare the Buddha to a physician.^{[lower-alpha 19]}

Within Buddhist traditions

Theravada

Within the Theravada tradition, great emphasis is placed upon reading and contemplating The Discourse That Sets Turning the Wheel of Truth, and other suttas, as a means to study the four noble truths and put them into practice.^[7] For example, Ajahn Sumedho states:^[13]

"The Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, the Buddha's teaching on the Four Noble Truths, has been the main reference that I have used for my practice over the years. It is the teaching we used in our monastery in Thailand. The Theravada school of Buddhism regards this sutta as the quintessence of the teachings of the Buddha. This one sutta contains all that is necessary for understanding the Dhamma and for enlightenment."

Mahayana traditions

In the Mahayana traditions, the four noble truths are considered central to the teachings of Buddhism, but are traditionally studied and practiced in conjunction with teachings on bodhisattva path.^[7]

Tibetan Buddhism

Within Tibetan Buddhism, the four noble truths are traditionally studied from Mahayana commentaries such as the Abhisamayalamkara, rather than from reading the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. In this context, the truth of the path (the fourth truth) is traditionally presented according to a progressive formula of five paths, rather than as the eightfold path that is emphasized in the Theravada tradition.^{[lower-alpha 20]} The Tibetan tradition also emphasizes the study of the sixteen characteristics of the four noble truths, as described in the Abhisamayalamkara.

Note however, that some contemporary Tibetan Buddhist teachers have provided commentary on the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta and the noble eightfold path when presenting the dharma to Western students. For example, Geshe Tashi Tsering's commentary on the four noble truths emphasizes the Pali version of the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta,^[59] and contemporary texts by Ringu Tulku^[60] and Lama Surya Das^[61] present the noble eightfold path.

From the Tibetan Buddhist point of view, these alternative methods of presentation are not considered to be contradictory, but rather as different ways to present the Buddhist path.^[58]

For example, the Dalai Lama states:^[62]

...although I recite mantras and visualize certain deities, even so, the main emphasis of my daily practice is the Four Noble Truths and bodhichitta. These two practices I feel are of real practical benefit.

East Asian Buddhism

East Asian Buddhism follows the Mahayana school, and therefore emphasizes the path of the Bodhisattva.

For traditions that follow the Lotus Sutra, the Lotus Sutra explicitly states that the Lotus Sutra is a higher teaching than the Four Noble Truths. According to contemporary scholar Burton Watson, the Lotus Sutra refers to the four noble truths in the context of presenting the teachings on the bodhisattva path.^[63]^{[web 15]}

Methods of study and practice

Differences between Theravada and Mahayana approaches

The two main traditions of Buddhism, the Theravada and Mahayana, have different approaches to learning about the four noble truths and putting them into practice. The Theravada tradition strongly emphasizes reading and contemplating The Discourse That Sets Turning the Wheel of Truth—the first discourse of the Buddha—as a means to study the four noble truths and put them into practice. In the Mahayana tradition, practitioners are more likely to learn about the four noble truths through studying various Mahayana commentaries, and less like to study the first discourse directly. The Mahayana commentaries typically present the four noble truths in the context of the Mahayana path of the bodhisattva.^[7]

For example, Geshe Tashi Tsering explains:^[7]

The two main Buddhist traditions, Theravada and Mahayana, have different sets of scriptures. The Theravada is an earlier tradition whose teachings are recorded in the Pali texts, while the Mahayana is based on Sanskrit texts that were written down later. The countries that follow the Theravada tradition strongly emphasize reading, reciting, and learning the actual discourses of the Buddha. In the Tibetan monasteries, which follow the Mahayana tradition, we study the four noble truths on many occasions over the course of our education, but we do not typically study the sutra itself. Usually we study this topic in conjunction with the teachings that emphasize the bodhisattva aspiration for enlightenment for the sake of all other beings.

Paul Williams writes that in contrast to the East Asian traditions, there has been a strong tendency in Tibetan Buddhism and the Himalayan traditions to approach the sūtras indirectly through the medium of exegetical treatises if at all.^[64]

Another point of difference between the two traditions is that the Theravada tradition emphasizes contemplating three stages for each truth (for a total of twelve insights) as outlined in The Discourse That Sets Turning the Wheel of Truth, whereas certain Mayahana traditions also identify sixteen characteristics of the four noble truths. (These alternatives are explained below.)

Twelve insights

The Discourse That Sets Turning the Wheel of Truth identifies three stages in the understanding of each truth, for a total of twelve insights. The three stages for understanding each truth are:^{[lower-alpha 21]}

sacca-ñāṇa - knowing the nature of the truth (e.g., acknowledgement, view, reflection)
kicca-ñāṇa - knowing what needs to be done in connection with that truth (e.g., practice; motivation; directly experiencing)
kata-ñāṇa - accomplishing what needs to be done (e.g., result, full understanding, knowing)

These three stages of understanding are emphasized particularly in the Theravada tradition, but they are also recognized by some contemporary Mahayana teachers.^{[lower-alpha 22]}

Three insights for the first noble truth

The three insights for the first noble truth are:

There is suffering.Ajahn Sumedho explains: "We don’t need to make it into anything grand; it is just the recognition: ‘There is suffering’. That is a basic insight. The ignorant person says, ‘I’m suffering. I don’t want to suffer. I meditate and I go on retreats to get out of suffering, but I’m still suffering and I don’t want to suffer.... How can I get out of suffering? What can I do to get rid of it?’ But that is not the First Noble Truth; it is not: ‘I am suffering and I want to end it.’ The insight is, ‘There is suffering’."^[67]
Suffering should be understood.Ajahn Sumedho explains: "The second insight or aspect of each of the Noble Truths has the word ‘should’ in it: ‘It should be understood.’ The second insight then, is that dukkha is something to understand. One should understand dukkha, not just try to get rid of it. [...] In Pali, ‘understanding’ means to really accept the suffering, stand under or embrace it rather than just react to it. With any form of suffering – physical or mental – we usually just react, but with understanding we can really look at suffering; really accept it, really hold it and embrace it. So that is the second aspect, ‘We should understand suffering’."^[67]
Suffering has been understood.Ajahn Sumedho explains: "When you have actually practised with suffering – looking at it, accepting it, knowing it and letting it be the way it is – then there is the third aspect, ‘Suffering has been understood’, or ‘Dukkha has been understood.’ "^[67]

Three insights for the second noble truth

The three insights for the second noble truth are:^[71]^[72]

There is the origin of suffering, which is attachment to desire (tanha)Ajahn Sumedho emphasizes contemplating the three aspects of tanha: kama-tanha (the desire for sense pleasures); bhava-tanha (the desire to become something, such as seeking wealth or fame); vibhava-tahha (the desire to get rid of things, e.g. to avoid suffering)
Desire should be let go ofAjahn Sumedho states: "The more we contemplate and investigate grasping, the more the insight arises, 'Desire should be let go of.'"^[73]
Desire has been let go ofAjahn Sumedho states: "Then through the actual practice and understanding of what letting go really is, we have the third insight into the Second Noble Truth, which is 'Desire has been let go of.' We actually know letting go. It is not a theoretical letting go, but a direct insight. You know letting go has been accomplished. This is what practice is all about."^[73]

Three insights for the third noble truth

There is the cessation of suffering, of "dukkha"Ajahn Sumedho emphasizes the importance of reflecting on impermanence, that everything that arises also ceases. He states: "Rather than just thinking about it, really contemplate: 'All that is subject to arising is subject to ceasing.' Apply it to life in general, and to your own experience. Then you will understand. Just note: beginning...ending. Contemplate how things are. This sensory realm is all about arising and ceasing, beginning and ending; there can be perfect understanding in this lifetime."^[74]
The cessation of dukkha should be realizedAjahn Sumedho states: "To allow this process of cessation to work, we must be willing to suffer. This is why I stress the importance of patience. We have to open our minds to suffering, because it is in embracing suffering that suffering ceases. When we find that we are suffering, physically or mentally, then we go to the actual suffering that is present. We open completely to it, welcome it, concentrate on it, allowing it to be what it is. That means we must be patient and bear with the unpleasantness of a particular condition. We have to endure boredom, despair, doubt and fear in order to understand that they cease rather than running away from them."^[75]
The cessation of dukkha has been realizedAjahn Sumedho states: "[When craving] has ceased, you experience nirodha — cessation, emptiness, non-attachment. Nirodha is another word for Nibbana. When you have let something go and allowed it to cease, then what is left is peace."^[76]

Three insights for the fourth noble truth

There is a path to the cessation of sufferingPhillip Moffitt introduces this insight as follows: "In the Tenth Insight the Buddha asks you to realize that there is a path to finding freedom from the angst of your life and experiencing more joy. Implicit is the authentic possibility that you have the power to change your inner experience of life, and there is a specific means for you to do so. The realization of this insight evokes in you the faith to undergo the discipline, hard work, and renunciation that are called for in the Eleventh Insight."^[77]
This path should be cultivated (actualized)Phillip Moffitt introduces this insight as follows: "The Noble Eightfold Path is not a set of beliefs or laws but rather a practical, direct experience method for finding meaning and peace in your life. Think of it as an organic blueprint from which you organize and live your life. Each of the eight path factors defines one aspect of behavioral development needed for you to move from suffering to joy. Its eight factors function as an integrated system or matrix that supports and informs all parts of your life. By "cultivating" the Buddha means attending to, nourishing, and manifesting each of these factors of wisdom in your life."^[78]
This path is realizedPhillip Moffitt states: "As you begin working with the twelfth and final of the Buddha's insights, you are nearing the end of your search to know how to live wisely. In your journey you have utilized mindfulness to explore the experiences of your mind and body, which has allowed you to directly know the emotional, psychological, existential, and spiritual dilemmas of daily life. You are no longer deluded-you no longer have the mistaken belief that your mind has to be trapped in stress and reactivity for the rest of your life. You now know that freedom is truly possible, and you "know that you know" effective ways to respond to desire and difficulty when they arise in your life. You know that a path to cessation with its eight factors exists; you know its parts; you know you are capable of practicing it; and you know that it works for you!"^[79]

Sixteen characteristics

The Mahayana text Ornament of Clear Realization (Abhisamayalamkara) identifies four characteristics of each truth, for a total of sixteen characteristics, which are presented as a guide to contemplating and practicing the four noble truths.^[80] The Ornament of Clear Realization is a key text in the curriculum of Tibetan Buddhist monasteries and study colleges, and this method of study and practice is emphasized in the Tibetan tradition.

These sixteen characteristics are identified as follows:^[81]^{[web 16]}

Truth of suffering - these characteristics refer to the five aggregates^[82]
1. impermanence - the five aggregates are impermanent and change from moment to moment
2. suffering - the five aggregates have come into being because of avidya (ignorance) and kleshas (disturbing emotions), and they are under the influence of the avidya and kleshas
3. emptiness - there is no "self" outside of the five aggregates that controls or makes use of the five aggregates
4. selflessness - there is no "self" to be found within the five aggregates that controls or makes use of the five aggregates
Truth of origin - these characteristics refer to karma, kleshas, and avidya (ignorance)^[83]
1. causes - karma, kleshas, and avidya are constantly arising within our mental continuum, and because of their nature they have the quality of being the causes of suffering.
2. origin - kleshas and karma are the actual origin of suffering, not just intermediate links.
3. strong production - avidya, kleshas, and karma act forcefully as the main causes of suffering (they are not just passive ingredients)
4. condition - avidya, kleshas, and karma are more than just the main causes of suffering, they are also the contributory causes
Truth of cessation - these characteristics refer to cessation^[84]
1. cessation - cessation is the ceasing of all kleshas and avidya forever
2. pacification - cessation pacifies the torment of suffering, bring true peace
3. being superb - cessation is supreme in bringing about the source of all health and happiness
4. definite emergence - cessation will definitely bring us out of samsara
Truth of the path - these characteristics refer to the path^[85]
1. path - the path leads to cessation
2. awareness - the path leads us to a full and complete understanding of the root of cyclic existence (samsara) and the means to escape it
3. achievement - through the path, we can definitely achieve the result of liberation and enlightenment
4. deliverance - the path delivers us from the bondage of our conditioned existence

Within the discourses

Gautama Buddha delivering his first sermon.

According to the Buddhist tradition, the Buddha taught on the four noble truths repeatedly throughout his lifetime, continually expanding and clarifying his meaning.^{[lower-alpha 4]} Hence, there are many discourses (Pali: suttas)—the written records of the teaching of the Buddha—that provide explanations of the four noble truths.

Within the first discourse

According to the Buddhist tradition, the Buddha first taught the four noble truths in the very first teaching he gave after he attained enlightenment, as recorded in the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (The Discourse That Sets Turning the Wheel of Truth). Within this discourse, there are four key verses which present the four noble truths. Several translations of these key four verses are provided below.

John T. Bullit translation

In the following translation of these key four verses by contemporary Theravada translator John T. Bullit, the term dukkha is left untranslated:^{[lower-alpha 23]}

"Now this, monks, is the noble truth of dukkha: birth is dukkha, aging is dukkha, death is dukkha; sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, & despair are dukkha; association with the unbeloved is dukkha; separation from the loved is dukkha; not getting what is wanted is dukkha. In short, the five clinging-aggregates are dukkha.
"And this, monks is the noble truth of the origination of dukkha: the craving that makes for further becoming — accompanied by passion & delight, relishing now here & now there — i.e., craving for sensual pleasure, craving for becoming, craving for non-becoming.
"And this, monks, is the noble truth of the cessation of dukkha: the remainderless fading & cessation, renunciation, relinquishment, release, & letting go of that very craving.
"And this, monks, is the noble truth of the way of practice leading to the cessation of dukkha: precisely this Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration."

Bhikkhu Bodhi translation

In the following translation of these key four verses by contemporary Theravada teacher Bhikkhu Bodhi, the term dukkha is translated as "suffering":^{[web 18]}

“Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of suffering: birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are suffering.
“Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of the origin of suffering: it is this craving which leads to re-becoming, accompanied by delight and lust, seeking delight here and there; that is, craving for sensual pleasures, craving for becoming, craving for disbecoming.
“Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering: it is the remainderless fading away and cessation of that same craving, the giving up and relinquishing of it, freedom from it, non-reliance on it.
“Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering: it is this noble eightfold path; that is, right view ... right concentration."

Thich Nhat Hanh translation

Contemporary Mahayana teacher Thich Nhat Hanh presents the following translation of these verses based upon multiple sources:^[86]^{[lower-alpha 24]}

“Brothers, [...the first truth] is the existence of suffering. Birth, old age, sickness, and death are suffering. Sadness, anger, jealousy, worry, anxiety, fear, and despair are suffering. Separation from loved ones is suffering. Association with those you hate is suffering. Desire, attachment, and clinging to the five aggregates are suffering.
“Brothers, the second truth is the cause of suffering. Because of ignorance, people cannot see the truth about life, and they become caught in the flames of desire, anger, jealousy, grief, worry, fear, and despair.
“Brothers, the third truth is the cessation of suffering. Understanding the truth of life brings about the cessation of every grief and sorrow and gives rise to peace and joy.
“Brothers, the fourth truth is the path which leads to the cessation of suffering. It is the Noble Eightfold Path, which I have just explained. The Noble Eightfold Path is nourished by living mindfully. Mindfulness leads to concentration and understanding which liberates you from every pain and sorrow and leads to peace and joy. I will guide you along this path of realization.”

Additional translations

For additional translations of the first discourse, see Dhammacakkappavattana_Sutta § Translations_into_English.

Within other discourses

Some well-known sutras that elaborate on the four noble truths are listed below.

Tittha Sutta (Sectarians)

In the Tittha Sutta (Anguttara Nikaya 3.61), the Buddha provides an alternate description of the second and third noble truths; in this sutta the Buddha identifies the arising and cessation of suffering in accordance with his teachings on the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination.^{[web 19]}

For example, this sutta states:^{[web 19]}

And what is the noble truth of the origination of stress [dukkha]?From ignorance as a requisite condition come fabrications. From fabrications as a requisite condition comes consciousness. From consciousness as a requisite condition comes name-&-form. From name-&-form as a requisite condition come the six sense media. From the six sense media as a requisite condition comes contact. From contact as a requisite condition comes feeling. From feeling as a requisite condition comes craving. From craving as a requisite condition comes clinging/sustenance. From clinging/sustenance as a requisite condition comes becoming. From becoming as a requisite condition comes birth. From birth as a requisite condition, then old age & death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair come into play. Such is the origination of this entire mass of stress & suffering.

Maha-satipatthana Sutta (The Great Frames of Reference)

The Maha-satipatthana Sutta (Digha Nikaya 22) elaborates on the meaning of each of the four noble truths (providing additional details to those found in the first discourse of the Buddha).^{[web 20]}

For example, this sutta includes the following details on the first noble truth (the truth of dukkha):^{[web 20]}

"Now what is the noble truth of stress [dukkha]? Birth is stressful, aging is stressful, death is stressful; sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair are stressful; association with the unbeloved is stressful; separation from the loved is stressful; not getting what one wants is stressful. In short, the five clinging-aggregates are stressful."And what is birth? Whatever birth, taking birth, descent, coming-to-be, coming-forth, appearance of aggregates, & acquisition of [sense] spheres of the various beings in this or that group of beings, that is called birth."And what is aging? Whatever aging, decrepitude, brokenness, graying, wrinkling, decline of life-force, weakening of the faculties of the various beings in this or that group of beings, that is called aging.[...]"And what are the five clinging-aggregates that, in short, are stress [dukkha]? Form as a clinging-aggregate, feeling as a clinging-aggregate, perception as a clinging-aggregate, fabrications as a clinging-aggregate, consciousness as a clinging-aggregate: These are called the five clinging-aggregates that, in short, are stress."

Sammaditthi Sutta (The Discourse on Right View)

The Sammaditthi Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya 9), a discourse given by Ven. Sariputta, explains many aspects of the four noble truths, kamma and dependent arising.^{[web 21]}

Mahāhatthipadopama Sutta (The Greater Discourse on the Elephant-footprint Simile)

The Mahāhatthipadopama Sutta (The Greater Discourse on the Elephant-footprint Simile; Majjhima-Nikāya 28), a discourse given by Sāriputta, presents the simile of the elephant-footprint; this sutta states:^{[web 22]}

Friends, just as the footprint of any breathing thing that walks can be placed within an elephant’s footprint, and so the elephant’s footprint is declared the chief of them because of its great size, so too, whatever beneficial ideas there are can all be included in the four Noble Truths.

This sutta also elaborates on the meaning of the five aggregates which are mentioned in the first discourse as part of the cause of suffering.^{[web 22]}

Maha-parinibbana Sutta (Last Days of the Buddha)

The Maha-parinibbana Sutta was given near the end of the Buddha's life. In this sutta, the Buddha emphasized the importance of the four noble truths with the following statement:^{[web 23]}

And the Blessed One addressed the bhikkhus, saying: "Bhikkhus, it is through not realizing, through not penetrating the Four Noble Truths that this long course of birth and death has been passed through and undergone by me as well as by you. What are these four? They are the noble truth of suffering; the noble truth of the origin of suffering; the noble truth of the cessation of suffering; and the noble truth of the way to the cessation of suffering. But now, bhikkhus, that these have been realized and penetrated, cut off is the craving for existence, destroyed is that which leads to renewed becoming, and there is no fresh becoming."Thus it was said by the Blessed One. And the Happy One, the Master, further said:Through not seeing the Four Noble Truths,Long was the weary path from birth to birth.When these are known, removed is rebirth's cause,The root of sorrow plucked; then ends rebirth.

Contemporary glosses

Many contemporary Buddhist teachers have provided brief summaries of the four noble truths as a means of introducing this doctrine to Western students. A sampling of these summaries is included here.

Sylvia Boorstein: life is challenging

Sylvia Boorstein summarizes the four truths as follows:^{[web 24]}

Life is challenging. For everyone. Our physical bodies, our relationships—all of our life circumstances—are fragile and subject to change. We are always accommodating.
The cause of suffering is the mind’s struggle in response to challenge.
The end of suffering—a non-struggling, peaceful mind—is a possibility.
The program for ending suffering is the Eightfold Path.

Lama Surya Das: life is difficult

Lama Surya Das summarizes the four noble truths as follows:^[16]

The First Noble Truth: Life is difficult.
The Second Noble Truth: Life is difficult because of attachment, because we crave satisfaction in ways that are inherently dissatisfying
The Third Noble Truth: The possibility of liberation from difficulties exists for everyone.
The Fourth Noble Truth: The way to realize this liberation and enlightenment is by leading a compassionate life of virtue, wisdom, and meditation. These three spiritual trainings comprise the teachings of the Eight-fold Path to Enlightenment.

Damien Keown, et al.: life is suffering

Many contemporary Buddhist teachers and scholars offer summaries of the Four Noble Truths that begin with the statement "life is suffering." For example, Damien Keown presents the essential meaning of the four truths as follows:^[90]

life is suffering,
suffering is caused by craving,
suffering can have an end, and
there is a path which leads to the end of suffering.

Note, however, that a number of Buddhist teachers and scholars have cautioned that the phrase "life is suffering" can lead to a misunderstanding of the Buddhist view by seeming to present a pessimistic outlook. For example:

Thanissaro Bhikkhu states: "You've probably heard the rumor that "Life is suffering" is Buddhism's first principle, the Buddha's first noble truth. It's a rumor with good credentials, spread by well-respected academics and Dharma teachers alike, but a rumor nonetheless. The truth about the noble truths is far more interesting. The Buddha taught four truths — not one — about life: There is suffering, there is a cause for suffering, there is an end of suffering, and there is a path of practice that puts an end to suffering. These truths, taken as a whole, are far from pessimistic. They're a practical, problem-solving approach [...]" ^{[web 14]}
Phillip Moffit states: "Oftentimes, the First Noble Truth is misquoted as `All life is suffering," but that is an inaccurate and misleading reflection of the Buddha's insight. He did not teach that life is constant misery, nor that you should expect to feel pain and unhappiness at all times. Rather, he proclaimed that suffering is an unavoidable reality of ordinary human existence that is to be known and responded to wisely."^[91]
Gil Fronsdal states: "The First Noble Truth simply says that suffering occurs. It does not say, "Life is suffering." "^[92]

Ajahn Sumedho, et al.: there is suffering

Many contemporary Buddhist teachers and scholars offer summaries of the Four Noble Truths that begin with the statement "there is suffering."^{[lower-alpha 25]} For example, Ajahn Sumedho presents the following summary of the four truths:^[93]

there is suffering;
there is a cause or origin of suffering;
there is an end of suffering; and
there is path out of suffering which is the Eightfold Path.

In this case, Ajahn Sumedho is referring to the first of three insights for each truth. For example, regarding the first insight of the first noble truth, Ajahn Sumedho states:^[67]

For the First Noble Truth, 'There is suffering' is the first insight. What is that insight? We don’t need to make it into anything grand; it is just the recognition: ‘There is suffering’. That is a basic insight. The ignorant person says, ‘I’m suffering. I don’t want to suffer. I meditate and I go on retreats to get out of suffering, but I’m still suffering and I don’t want to suffer.... How can I get out of suffering? What can I do to get rid of it?’ But that is not the First Noble Truth; it is not: ‘I am suffering and I want to end it.’ The insight is, ‘There is suffering’.

Gil Fronsdal: suffering occurs

Contemporary Buddhist teacher Gil Fronsdal summarizes the four truths as follows:^[56]

Suffering occurs.
The cause of suffering is craving.
The possibility for ending suffering exists.
The cessation of suffering can be attained through the Noble Eightfold Path.

Mingyur Rinpoche: ordinary life is conditioned by suffering

Mingyur Rinpoche refers the Four Noble Truths as "Four Pure Insights into the Way Things Are". He summarizes these insights as follows:^[95]

Ordinary life is conditioned by suffering;
Suffering results from causes;
The causes of suffering can be extinguished;
There is a simple path through which the causes of suffering can be extinguished.

Phillip Moffitt: your life contains moments of dukkha

Phillip Moffitt presents the essential meaning of the four noble truths as follows:^[96]

your life contains moments of dukkha;
the cause of your dukkha is clinging to desired objects and states of being;
you can release dukkha by letting go of clinging to those desires; and
there is an Eightfold Path to freedom from dukkha that you can follow in order to accomplish all this.

Moffitt states that understanding these truths is the foundation of Buddhist wisdom.

Mark Epstein: the inevitability of humiliation in our lives

Mark Epstein relates the Four Noble Truths to modern psychology.^{[lower-alpha 26]} He summarizes the essential meaning of the four truths from a psychological perspective as follows:^[5]

The first truth highlights the inevitability of humiliation in our lives
The second truth speaks of the primal thirst that makes such humiliation inevitable.
The third truth promises release
The fourth truth spells out the means of accomplishing that release.

Pema Chodron: we change and flow like the weather

Pema Chodron provides an explanation of the four noble truths that relates our changing thoughts and emotions to the weather. In this context, Pema Chodron summarizes the four truths as follows:^{[lower-alpha 27]}

The first noble truth says that it’s part of being human to feel discomfort. Nothing in its essence is one way or the other. All around us the wind, the fire, the earth, the water, are always taking on different qualities; they’re like magicians. We also change like the weather. We ebb and flow like the tides, we wax and wane like the moon. We fail to see that like the weather, we are fluid, not solid. And so we suffer.
The second noble truth says that resistance is the fundamental operating mechanism of what we call ego, that resisting life causes suffering. Traditionally it’s said that the cause of suffering is clinging to our narrow view, which is to say, we are addicted to ME. We resist that we change and flow like the weather, that we have the same energy as all living things. When we resist, we dig in our heels. We make ourselves really solid. Resisting is what’s called ego.
The third noble truth says that suffering ceases when we let go of trying to maintain the huge ME at any cost. This is what we practice in meditation. When we let go of the thinking and the story line, we’re left just sitting with the quality and the energy of whatever particular “weather” we’ve been trying to resist.
The essence of the fourth noble truth is that we can use everything we do to help us to realize that we’re part of the energy that creates everything. If we learn to sit still like a mountain in a hurricane, unprotected from the truth and vividness and the immediacy of simply being part of life, then we are not this separate being who has to have things turn out our way. When we stop resisting and let the weather simply flow through us, we can live our lives completely. It’s up to us.

Ajahn Sucitto: the feeling of lack or loss or conflict in our lives

Ajahn Sucitto presents the essential topics of the four truths as follows:^[99]

The four noble truths are about “suffering,” how it arises, how it ceases, and a way to bring around that ceasing. These occupy the center of the Buddha’s teaching, because they already are central to human experience. Everyone knows the feeling of lack or loss or conflict in their lives: this is what the Buddha called dukkha, often translated as “suffering,” but covering a whole range of meanings and nuances. At times, we feel it as a sense of need, or a dissatisfaction that can vary from mild weariness to utter despair. This feeling can be triggered either by physical experience or by mental impressions concerning ourselves or other beings. It is a feeling characterized by a sense that things are “out of balance.” Even if we are physically well and mentally skilled, we can feel disappointed that life isn’t offering us enough, or that we’re not making enough of it or doing enough, or that there’s not enough time, space, freedom. We can feel anxiety over the state of the planet and the environment; our perceptions of the present and the future are not secure and problem free. So that pulls on us emotionally. Then there’s the sense of “too much”—feeling overwhelmed, not having enough space, time, and ease. In both cases there’s a continual sense of subtle or gross stress. Just reflect upon your activities and pursuits: notice that they involve a constant effort to change or cope with what is disagreeable, or to stimulate well-being. This striving is universal.

Peter Harvey: four true realities for the spiritually ennobled

Peter Harvey refers to the Four Noble Truths as "The four True Realities for the Spiritually Ennobled". He summarizes these realities as follows:^[55]

(i) dukkha, ‘the painful’, encompassing the various forms of ‘pain’, gross or subtle, physical or mental, that we are all subject to, along with painful things that engender these;(ii) the origination (samudaya, i.e. cause) of dukkha, namely craving (tanha, Skt. trishna);(iii) the cessation (nirodha) of dukkha by the cessation of craving (this cessation being equivalent to Nirvana); and(iv) the path (magga, Skt marga) that leads to this cessation.

Sāmanera Bodhesako: a recursive algorithm

Sāmanera Bodhesako describes knowledge of the four noble truths as a recursive algorithm:^{[web 27]}

The most fundamental level of the Buddha’s Teaching is that of the four noble truths: the truth of dukkha, the truth of the arising of dukkha, the truth of the ceasing of dukkha, and the truth of the path leading to the ceasing of dukkha. The fourth truth is, in its expanded form, that of the noble eightfold path, namely, right view, right attitude, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. The first of these factors, right view, is defined (at e.g. D. 22: ii,312) as knowledge of the four noble truths. Such knowledge will of course include knowledge of the fourth of these truths, namely the noble eightfold path; and it will of course include knowledge of the first factor of that path, namely right view. Therefore right view means (among other things) having right view about right view. Further, it means having right view about right view…about right view. Not only does one know, but one knows that one knows. As with properly aligned mirrors, which reflect each other’s images endlessly, so too the hierarchy of knowledge is recursively infinite.

David Brazier: not "origin", but "together with"

David Brazier also relates the four noble truths to modern psychology. Brazier asserts that the traditional translations of the Pali terms samudhaya and nirodha as "origin" and "cessation", coupled with the translation of dukkha as "suffering", give rise to a causal explanation of suffering, and the impression that suffering can be totally terminated. Brazier offers different translations of these terms and summarizes the four noble truths as follows:^[100]

Dukkha: existence is imperfect, it's like a wheel that's not straight into the axis;
Samudhaya: simultaneously with the experience of dukkha there arises tanha, thirst: the dissatisfaction with what is and the yearning that life should be different from how it is. We keep imprisoned in this yearning when we don't see reality as it is, namely imperfect and ever-changing;
Nirodha: we can confine this yearning (that reality is different from how it is), and perceive reality as it is, whereby our suffering from the imperfectness becomes confined;
Marga: this confinement is possible by following the Eightfold Path.

According to Brazier's translation, samudhaya means that the uneasiness that's inherent to life arises together with the craving that life's event would be different. The translation of nirodha as confinement means that this craving is a natural reaction, which cannot be totally escaped or ceased, but can be limited, which gives us freedom.^[100]

Gudo Wafu Nishijima: three philosophies and one reality

Gudō Wafu Nishijima presents a distinctive interpretation of the four noble truths by relating them to his theory of Three philosophies and one reality.^{[web 28]}^[101] Nishijima relates each truth to a different view:^[101]

The First Noble Truth is idealism or spiritualism
The Second Noble Truth is materialism
The Third Noble Truth is action
The Fourth Noble Truth is reality
https://encyclopediaofbuddhism.org/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths

https://www.buddhanet.net/4noble4.htm

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