BUDDHISM IN SRI LANKA DURING THE PERIOD

OF THE 19th TO 21st CENTURIES

Buddhist Studies Conference, Colombo 16th July 2023

With the sponsorship of the Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha  Society & Huong Sen Buddhist Temple, California, USA

Edited by

Prof. Ven. Medagama Nandawansa

Dr. Ven. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong

 CONTENTS

Introduction                                                                                   7

Colombo Seminar Banner                                                          10

Invitation Letter                                                                          11

Agenda of Maha Mahinda International

Dharmadutha Society                                                                 12

1. KEY SPEECH
   • Welcome Address - Ven. Medagama Nandawansa 15
   • Opening Remarks - Ven. Kahawatte Siri Sumedha 19
   • Sponsor Speech - Ven. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong 22
   • Note of Thanks - Sanath Ediriweera 24
2. RESEARCH PAPERS
   • Contributions of Sri Lankan Buddhist Writers
     • Ven. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong 31
   • An Introduction to the Classification of

Socio-Religious Debates in Sri Lanka in the Nineteenth Century with Special Reference to

Buddhism - Ven. Prof. Beligalle Dhammajoti                 46

• Relevance of Sectarianism to the Buddhist Revival in Ceylon during the British Period
  • Taldena Ariyawimala 64
• The Contribution of Foreign Scholars for the Promotion of Buddhist Culture during the Period of Nineteenth to Twentieth Centuries
  • A.A.R. Priyanka 81
• Evolutionary Factors and Contemporary Cultural Transformations of Traditional Buddhism in Sri

Lanka during the British Colonial Period

• Anuda Kanchana 90

• The Buddha Beside the Road: A New Trend of Buddha Image Worship in Sri Lanka
  • Prof. Raluwe Padmasiri 98
• The Contribution of Sri Lankan Scholars for the Promotion of Buddhism & the Pali Language during the Period of the Nineteenth to Twentieth Centuries
  • O.U. Dhammadheera 118
• Developing the Bhikkhunisasana in Modern Sri Lanka Society - Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda 127
• Religious and Ecclesiastical Deterioration of Buddhism in Sri Lanka during the Period of British Rule
  • M. D. Sachini Hansika Chandrapala 136
• Contemporary Society in Sri Lanka: Buddhist Paintings of the Southern School of Art
  • K.V.J. Koshalee 148
• The History of Buddhism in Sri Lanka in the

Modern Era - Dr. Ven. Kahawatte Siri Sumedha           158

Gallery Pictures of Colombo Seminar                                    169

Bao Anh Lac Bookshelf                                                          188

INTRODUCTION

 S

ri Lanka is a beautiful teardrop-shaped island in the Indian Ocean. It is a country based on the Buddha’s philosophy nurtured for more than 2,600 years. The message of the Buddha’s compassion and wisdom penetrated deep into the Sinhalese island. The spiritual practice of precepts-samadhi- wisdom as taught by the Buddha is an indispensable part of the

daily life of Sri Lankans.

Looking at the past, especially during the nineteenth and twenty-first centuries, the ancient Sinhala culture and Buddhist monks were influenced by Western countries. How did the Sri Lankan Sangha find a solution to adopt the conceptual modernization and still keep their traditions in Sri Lankan Buddhist society? How did the Sri Lanka Buddhist monks use their means, efforts, and contributions for the sake of this cause? These historical points serve as a compelling invitation to welcome international monastics and scholars from various nations who wish to visit and immerse themselves in this rich cultural heritage.

Under the warm sunlight of July 16, 2023, on the beautiful grounds of the Sri Lanka Vidyala Maha Piriven in Colombo, Sri Lanka, there were many bright golden robes of Asian monastics from Sri Lanka, Myanmar, China, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, India, Burma, Cambodia, Taiwan, and Vietnam. They were gathered to participate, learn and experience this Sri Lanka historical high mark, a seminar on “Buddhism in Sri Lanka during the Period of the Nineteenth to Twenty-first Centuries.” It was organized by the Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society with the collaboration and sponsorship of Huong Sen Buddhist Temple, California, USA.

At this seminar, many learned monastics, speakers, delegates, spiritual leaders, and researchers presented their meaningful papers to shine light on this matter for listeners and readers. They were Prof. Ven. Medagama Nandawansa Thera (Patron, Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society and Chief Incumbent of Sri Lanka Vidyalaya Maha Pirivena), Dr. Ven. Kahawatte Siri Sumedha (Chief Incumbent of Jambudvipa, Sri Lanka Buddhist Temple, Varanasi, India), Mr. Sanath Ediriweera (Chairman, Public Service Commission and the Honorable Secretary of the Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society), Ven. Prof. Beligalle Dhammajoti (Professor at the Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies, University of Ruhuna), Ven. Taldena Ariyawimala and Dr.

A.A.R. Priyanka (Senior Lecturers of the Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies, University of Ruhuna), the talented MC, Ven. Prof. Raluwe Padmasiri (Professor at the Department of Buddhist Thought, Postgraduate Institute of Pali and Buddhist Studies, University of Kelaniya), Ven. Sooriyawewe Somananda Thera (the Principal of the Sri Lanka Vidyala Maha Pirivena), Ven. Ketagoda Wimalajothi Thera (Deputy Principal, Sri Lanka Vidyalaya Maha Pirivena), Ven. Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda (Abbess of Sakyadhita Training and Meditation Center), Dr. Ven. Bhiksuni Gioi Huong (Lecturer at Vietnam Buddhist University in HCM City and Abbess, Huong Sen Buddhist Temple, California, USA), Rev. O.U. Dhammadheera, Ms. M. D. Sachini Hansika Chandrapala, Mr. Anuda Kanchana, and Mrs. K.V.J. Koshalee (Lecturer at the Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies, University of Ruhuna).

These papers are rich in knowledge, analysis, and information on Sri Lankan Buddhist history with specific focus on the period of the nineteenth to twenty-first centuries. They have been gathered together and are slated for publication in a book, which will serve as a valuable and dependable resource for academic studies and research.

We are much obliged to Prof. Ven. Medagama Nandawansa Thera, Dr. Ven. Kahawatte Siri Sumedha, and Dr. Ven. Bhikṣuṇī Gioi Huong, for their work on this meaningful Colombo seminar. We also express our gratitude at the MC Ven. Prof. Raluwe Padmasiri, Mr. Sanath Ediriweera, Rev. TN Như Phương, Rev. TN Nhuận Tường, the Huong Sen Temple’s delegation of ten monastic disciples, Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society’s staff, the scholar listeners, and all others known or unknown, who gave their assistance for this seminar and book.

May your journey to enlightenment be swift and may our Dhamma bond remain everlasting.

Huong Sen Buddhist Temple, September 30, 2023

With Metta, The Editorial Board

***

THE MAHA MAHINDA INTERNATIONAL DHARMADUTHA SOCIETY

With the collaboration and sponsorship of HUONG SEN BUDDHIST TEMPLE

California, USA, presents the Academic Seminar on:

BUDDHISM IN SRI LANKA DURING THE PERIOD OF

19^TH TO 21^ST CENTURIES

 Date and Time: 16^th July 2023 at 02.00pm Venue: Sri Lanka Vidyalaya Maha Pirivena, 58, Vipulasena Mawatha, Colombo 10

 AGENDA

Part I

KEY SPEECHES

WELCOME SPEECH

 Most Venerable Prof.

Medagama Nandawansa Nayaka Mahathera

The Chief Incumbent, Sri Lanka Vidyālaya Maha Pirivena Patron, Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society No. 58, Vipulasena Mawatha, Colombo-10, Sri Lanka

The Sanghanāyaka of the Western Province Sri Lanka Ramañña Mahā Nikāya

Good afternoon,

The Members of Ven. Maha Sangha, Ven. Bhikkhunis,

I

Scholars and the Dhamma Friends,

t’s a great pleasure for me as the Patron of the Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society to see

you here with us to participate in the Academic Seminar on “Buddhism in Sri Lanka during the period of 19^th to 21^st centuries,” organized by the Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society with the collaboration and sponsorship of

the Huong Sen Buddhist Temple, California, USA.

I’m entrusted with the duty of welcoming you as the patron of the society, so let me do it before making a few comments on the relevant topic of the seminar. First of all, I cordially welcome with respect the members of the Ven. Maha Sangha from many countries such as Sri Lanka, India, Myanmar, Vietnam, and China. Among them I would like to especially welcome the Chief Guest, Srī Lankā Vidyālayābhimānī Arhat Mahā Mahendra Vaṁsa Pravartaka Dr. Ven. Kahawatte Siri Sumedha Maha Thera, the Chief Incumbent of Jambudvipa-Sri Lanka Buddhist Temple, Varanasi, India for his initial coordination and kind guidance for these Academic Seminars held in Sri Lanka and for his personal participation and contribution to make the seminar a success.

Then I would like to welcome very warmly and kindly Dr. Ven. Bhikkhuni Gioi Huong, the Abbess of Huong Sen Buddhist Temple, California, USA for her resolute leadership to spread the message of the Dhamma wherever it’s possible for her. We are very proud of you Dr. Ven. Bhikkhuni Gioi Huong for your never-ending enthusiasm and determined attitude towards spreading the Teachings of the Buddha for the welfare of many. I welcome you and your Ven. Sister-Bhikkhunis, your disciples and supporters who are pillars of strength to you.

Next let me welcome Mr. Sanath Ediriweera, Chairman, Public Service Commission, for accepting our invitation to address you here in this seminar in spite of his busy schedule. Mr. Sanath Ediriweera is also the Hon. Secretary of the Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society and devotes much of his time for its religious, academic, and social welfare activities.

Now let me warmly welcome our learned paper presenters and other scholars for accepting our invitation and for their participation in the seminar. There are professors, senior lecturers, lecturers, assistant lecturers from the University of Ruhuna and the University of Kelaniya, mainly from the Pali and Buddhist Studies Departments. We extend special thanks to Prof. Ven. Beligalle Dhammajoti Thera from the University of Ruhuna, and Prof. Ven. Raluwe Padmasiri Thera from the Postgraduate Institute of Pali and Buddhist Studies, University of Kelaniya. Their learned contributions in the Academic Seminar will be published shortly after the seminar as it’s already planned by Dr. Ven. Bhikkhuni Gioi Huong. And I’m sure that the knowledge about the relevant period of Buddhism in Sri Lanka will be expanded through their erudite contributions. I welcome again all the paper presenters and the participants who are very keen on study and research in Pali and Buddhist Studies. They are from different countries and I am happy that the majority of them are from Vietnam doing their Buddhist studies with a special emphasis on Theravada Buddhism. I am sure that the academic seminar will be a great help to their studies as well.

Finally I would like to make a few comments on the focal topic, “Buddhism in Sri Lanka during the Period of the Nineteenth to Twenty-first Centuries.” We all know that Buddhism in Sri Lanka has a long history beyond twenty-five centuries during which it faced various challenges from within and without. There was a time we lost our prestige, the unbroken tradition of the Sangha community, which is one of the pivotal factors for the continued existence of the Sasana (Dispensation). However, it was re-established with the patronage of the rulers and with the guidance of the devoted lay people. The period that we focus on today was not congenial to Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Among the European invaders were the Portuguese who invaded the Island in 1505 and forced their religion and culture on the people with the policy of “accept or die.” During the period of the Dutch, they used mild forms of conversion through offering high government positions and various honorary titles to the locals. The English also used these subtle and effective methods to convert individuals into their faith and culture through educational and charitable initiatives, making it difficult for the local population to resist effectively. However, even after achieving independence in 1948, these influences persisted.

We have to remember that during nearly 500 years of colonial rule by the Europeans, it is said that only 2 percent of the population of Sri Lanka was converted to Christianity. This shows clearly how strongly Buddhism was rooted in Sri Lanka.

At present, the situation is changing very fast across various dimensions, including religion, culture, society, education, and last but not least, the economic and political spheres, the major factors contributing to the modern crisis in Sri Lanka. Unprecedented advanced development of science and technology has created new issues in the world. No country is left out of its good and bad effects. Consumerism has become the norm and Buddhism in Sri Lanka is no exception. New popular trends in Buddhist rituals have gradually eroded the core teachings of Buddhism, often with the unwitting endorsement of a significant portion of the Sangha community. This has left Buddhism in Sri Lanka at a crossroads.

The global Buddhist community shedding their different sectarianisms should come forward to seek satisfactory solutions for the continuity of the dhamma in the world. It will be a great solace to the modern chaotic world. This Academic Seminar will strengthen and support that noble task.

Thank you.

CHIEF GUEST SPEAKER

 Dr. Ven. Kahawatte Siri Sumedha

 President of Indo Sri Lanka International Buddhist Association

Chief Incumbent of Jambudvipa Sri Lanka Buddhist Temple, Varanasi, India

August 17, 2023

Sub: Letter of Congratulation and Appreciation for the Academic Seminar on “Buddhism in Sri Lanka during the 19^th to 21^st Centuries” organized at Sri Lanka Vidyalaya, Colombo, Sri Lanka on 16 July 2023, sponsored by Huong Sen Buddhist Temple, California, USA

I

t is a great pleasure to have association with Huong Sen Buddhist Temple monastic members and its President Dr. Bhikkhuni Gioi Huong who convened a seminar on July 16, 2023 on “Buddhism in Sri Lanka during the Period of the 19^th

to 21^st Centuries.”

The co-organizer of the seminar, Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society, was established by late Most Ven. Baddegama Wimalawamsa Anunayake Maha Thero with the purpose of educating Buddhist monks with the knowledge of different languages and to establish centres to propagate Buddhism in India and other parts of the world.

Sri Lanka Vidyalaya, venue of the seminar, is situated in the vicinity of the first Buddhist school, Ananda Vidyalatya, Maradana prime Oriental Buddhist Education Institute, and Maligakand Vidyodaya Pirivena, where the birth of Maha Bodhi Society took shape. It was the birthplace of the Buddhist flag and the Theosophical Society, where historical and religious events took places during the 19^th and 21^st centuries.

This seminar is an opportunity that will open a new academic chapter between Northern and Southern Buddhism. Huong Sen Buddhist Temple will offer a new path to information seekers of modern history from the era of colonialism to globalization. This academic seminar will open a new era of relationship for the propagation of Buddhism through academic activities between Sri Lanka and the Huong Sen Buddhist Temple, USA, in addition to supporting various charitable and social-religious initiatives with the Vietnamese Buddhist Community.

The proposed plan to publish the outcome of the seminar under the patronage of Dr. Bhikkhuni Gioi Huong, President of Huong Sen Buddhist Temple, California, USA will open new door of understanding and exchange of thoughts among the scholar monks and nuns of the Buddhist world and will help in the propagation of Buddhism.

The cooperation extended by Ven. Prof. M. Nandawansa Maha Thero, Present Patron of Maha Mahinda International Dharmaduta Society, Colombo, Sri Lanka is highly appreciated with gratitude and will be recorded as a great homage to fulfill aims and objectives of the Late Master, Founder of the Mission. With this I pray and convey my best wishes for the successful publication of seminars filled with worthy thoughts that will guide generations to come.

Bhavatu Sabba Mangalam

***

THE PATRONAGE SPEECH

Dr. Ven. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong

 The Abbess

Huong Sen Buddhist Temple, California, USA Lecturer on Dharma in English

Vietnam Buddhist University in HCM City, Vietnam

D

Good Afternoon Venerable Masters, Professors, Good afternoon Everyone,

ear Most Venerable Chairman, Professor Medagama Nandawansa Thera, the Patron of the Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society and Chief Incumbent of Sri

Lanka Vidyalaya Maha Pirivena,

Dear Dr. Venerable Kahawatte Siri Sumedha and all the eminent professors in Colombo,

Venerable Bhikkhus, Bhikkhunis, national and international distinguished guests, scholars, writers, speakers, students, researchers, devotees, fellow participants: we welcome you with utmost reverence and gratitude.

I am Bhikkhuni Giới Hương and my Vietnamese Delegation is from Hương Sen Temple in California, USA. It is a great honor for me and my group to be here before you today as we convene at this magnificent Buddhist conference: “Buddhism in Sri Lanka During the Period of the Nineteenth to Twenty-First Centuries.” I am happy to have the opportunity to express my passion and respect for the rich Buddhist history of Sri Lanka.

May this conference serve as a platform for us to deepen our understanding of Sri Lanka’s Buddhist history, fostering a greater appreciation for the profound teachings that have shaped this remarkable nation. Let us embrace this opportunity to connect, share knowledge, and collectively celebrate the enduring legacy of Buddhism in Sri Lanka.

In closing, I would like to extend my deepest thanks to Professor Medagama Nandawansa Thera and everyone at the Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society. Thank you for contributing your efforts to this conference. I also acknowledge the chief monks, chief nuns, renowned professors, and fellow scholar participants for attending this conference and sharing your valuable knowledge and insights with us. I cannot adequately express how much I value your hard work and sacrifices which benefit us all. Inspiring and guiding us on our spiritual paths, may this conference be a life-altering experience for everyone.

Thank you for your presence, and I look forward to listening to the enlightening talks and discussions throughout this conference.

Namo Sakyamuni Buddha

 

ADDRESS

Secretary, Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society

Mr. Sanath Ediriweera

 

I

am very happy to talk to you today as the Secretary of the Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society.

This is the second of the two seminars held in Sri Lanka by the Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society with the collaboration and sponsorship of Huong Sen Temple, California, United States of America.

I trust that the Venerable Bhikkhunis and other distinguished guests from the United States have had a pleasant and productive stay at Peradeniya. Incidentally, I am a graduate of the University of Peradeniya. It is indeed very pleasant there.

The two seminars explore the role of Sri Lanka in the situation of Buddhism in the world today. The first at Peradeniya on “Global Spread of Buddhism with Special Reference to Sri Lanka” explores the role of Sri Lanka in the international spread of Buddhism in the recent past. The second one today is on “Buddhism in Sri Lanka during the Nineteenth to Twenty- First Centuries.” It explores the changes in Sri Lankan Buddhist culture from the British period to the present.

Sri Lanka, at least the coastal parts, was conquered by the Europeans in 1505—first the Portuguese for 150 years, then the Dutch for 150 years, and finally the British who conquered the entire island and stayed for another 150 years. Sri Lanka became independent in 1948.

We have to note that all countries in Asia, except Thailand, were subject to European conquest during this period; Vietnam falling under the French in 1883.

Buddhism in Sri Lanka has been resilient over more than

450 years under European Christian rule. I say Christian because in 1494 the non-European world was divided in two by Pope Alexander VI when he issued a papal bull, “Inter caetera.” The east was given to Portugal and the west to Spain to be Christianized. Ten years later the Portuguese were in Sri Lanka. In spite of five centuries of European domination, Buddhists account for more than 70 percent of the population today. Buddhism has been able sustain itself in Sri Lanka through the incorporation of Western cultural elements into Buddhist culture. An example is the celebration of birthdays with those gathered for the occasion singing “Happy Birthday” in English. This is almost universal in urban areas. The Buddhist cultural attitude to birthdays is that one is closer to death by one year and hence has to pursue more vigorously what one must do in life, foremost of all are actions aimed at achieving Nirvana. Another recent such example is the couple dancing at their wedding. Earlier Buddhist weddings were very solemn occasions conforming strictly to traditional rituals.

It is because of this resilience and adaptation to dominant world cultural norms that Sri Lanka has been able retain its core Buddhist values. This is why it was able to foster the reintroduction of Buddhism to India. The Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society was established at this temple sixty years ago to take the message of Buddhism to the world.

The Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society was formed in the name of the son of Emperor Ashoka of India. This was in gratitude for Emperor Ashoka sending his own son Mahinda (Mahendra) Arahat Thera and his daughter Sanghamitta Arahat Theri to Sri Lanka to establish Buddhism 236 years after the passing away of the Buddha.

The establishment of the Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society illustrates one of the core values in Buddhist culture, that of gratitude, the obligation to pay back to the family, society, and others for what they have provided.

This is a common cultural and philosophical thread in Asia. Confucianism also incorporates this value. One can observe that conformity to this principle leads to social cohesion and peace in society.

One needs to contrast this with the ideology of individual rights that is now promoted in Western societies. When one looks at recent world history, it becomes clear that the rights ideology leads to unstable societies and ultimately to violence. The riots all over France in the recent weeks are a cogent reminder of this.

As Buddhists we need to reflect on the effects of incorporating

such ideologies into our social and governance structures.

Buddhists also need to understand the changes that the world is going through now. The unipolar world is being replaced with a multipolar world. Instead of one big powerful country there emerge big powerful countries, the United States, China, Russia, and India. Instead of one dominant ideology, several ideologies compete. Such competition leads to war and destruction before it settles down in equilibrium.

May I suggest that due to these geopolitical developments, Buddhists living in Western societies have an opportunity and an obligation to offer Buddhism to these societies as an alternate view of the human condition that leads to peace in society and the world.

Buddhist Bhikkhus, Bhikkhunis, and lay Buddhists in these societies will need to reach beyond the ethnic communities to the mainstream society with the message of Buddhism in an open and assertive manner. The Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society stands ready to assist such endeavors in whatever way possible.

Thank you very much for listening to me. May the Triple Gem Bless you all.

***

Part II

KEY SPEECHES

CONTRIBUTIONS

OF SRI LANKAN BUDDHIST WRITERSTemple California, USA

Lecturer on Dharma in English Vietnam Buddhist University in HCM City

Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

I. 

S

INTRODUCTION

ri Lanka is one of the oldest traditionally Buddhist countries. The island has been a center of Buddhist theory

and practice since the introduction of Buddhism in the third century BCE, producing eminent scholars such as Buddhaghosa and preserving the vast Pali Canon.

HISTORY OF BUDDHIST LITERATURE

Sinhala is the language of 72 percent of the Sri Lankan population.

1.1.  Before the Common Era to the First Century

No written documents exist from the period before the coming of Buddhism in the third century BCE. With Buddhism, a written literature developed. The earliest extant records are cave and rock inscriptions in a Brahmi script dating from around 200 BCE, which list the names of Buddhist donors who supported cave-dwelling monks. This connection between the language and the religion, established very early, gave rise over time to a vigorous Buddhist literature.

As far back as the first century BCE, Buddhist monks at Aluvihare in central Sri Lanka committed Buddhist texts to writing. Monasteries quickly developed into centers of literary and intellectual activity, and a substantial collection of religious works, commentaries, exegetical writings, and historical records appeared in Pali, Sanskrit, and the local vernacular.

Figure 1: Theravada monks on almsround

 1.2.  The Fourth–Twelfth Century

The only extant works from before the eighth century BCE are the historical chronicles, the Dipavamsa (fourth century CE), the Mahavamsa (sixth century CE), and its continuation, the Culavamsa (twelfth century CE), which were all written in Pali, though based on records from the Sinhala. These chronicles, written by monks, constitute a chronology of Sinhala kings (from the time of the founder Vijaya to the time of the authors), their major victories and defeats, and their peacetime activities, especially their meritorious deeds in support of Buddhism.

The chronicles present a blend of historical information, religious exhortation, and political nationalism, all done with remarkable literary skill, thus constituting a record of what the authors perceived as the establishing of a Buddhist nation on the island of Sri Lanka.

The evidence of the chronicles, and references in later works and inscriptions, all suggest the existence of a flourishing literary tradition, even during this early period.

1.3.  The Tenth–Thirteenth Centuries

Sinhala literature from the tenth to the thirteenth centuries was strongly influenced by the classical court literature of India. The major Sinhala poetical works of the period are the Muvadevavata (The Story of the Bodhisattva’s Birth as King Mukhadeva, twelfth century), the Sasadavata (The Story of the Bodhisattva’s Birth as a Hare, twelfth century), and the Kavsilumina (The Crown Jewel of Poetry), attributed to King Parakramabahu II (thirteenth century). These works are classical in style, and present stories of the past births of the Buddha.

The oldest extant prose work in Sinhala is on rhetoric, the Siyabaslakara (The Ornaments of One’s Language), ascribed to King Sena I (832–851). The Dhampiyatuva Gatapadaya (Commentary on the Blessed Doctrine), a commentary on words and phrases in the Pali Dhammapada, was composed in the tenth century. The Sikhavalanda (The Mark of Sign of the Precepts) and Sikhavalanda Vinisa (An Examination of the Signs of the Precepts), a summary of precepts on priestly discipline, also belong to this period.

Sinhala prose works from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries can be described as “intermediate texts.” Though still classical in form, they were closer in idiom to the spoken vernacular. The Saddhamaratnavaliya (The Jewel Garland of the True Doctrine) by the monk Dharmasena, The Amatura (The Nectar Flow or The Flowing Nectar [of the Doctrine]) and Dharmapradipikava (The Light of the Doctrine) by the monk Gurulugomi, The Butsarana (The Protection [or Refuge] of the Buddha) by Vidyacakravarti, The Sinhala Thupavamsa (The Chronicle of the Stupas), the Daladasirita (An Account of the Tooth Relic [of the Buddha]), The Pujavaliya (The Garland of Worship), The Pansiya Panas Jataka Pota (The Book of Five Hundred and Fifty Birth Stories [of the Buddha]), the monk Vidagama Maitreya’s Budugunalamkaraya (An Elaboration of the Buddha’s Virtues), and the Lovada Saṃgrahaya (A Collection of Writings for the Betterment of the World), all belong to this tradition. They are Buddhist works intended for the edification of ordinary people and so had the flavor and style of popular sermons. Works on rhetoric, such as the Sidat Samgarava (A Collection of Writings on Grammar), The Siyabas Lakuna (The Marks or Signs of One’s Language), the Dandyalamkara Sanna (Commentary on Dandin’s Theory of Alamkara) and works on prosody, such as the Elusandas Lakuna (The Mark of Signs of the Original Sinhala), were also composed during this period.

Jayabahu Dharmakirti, writing in the thirteenth century in his Nikayasamgrahaya (Collection of Writings on the Books of the Doctrine), lists the names of twenty-eight monks and nine lay writers well-known for composing religious works, commentaries, glossaries, translations, and other works between the fifth and thirteenth centuries.

Unfortunately, all that remains from the first to eighth centuries CE are graffiti poems on the mirror wall of the rock fortress at Sigiriya. These short casual scribbles of visitors to Sigiriya between the seventh and ninth centuries CE (many of whom included their names and identities) do not represent the major literary tradition of the time. However, their skill and verve indicate the widespread nature and vitality of a tradition where soldiers, artisans, monks, and women (in addition to more traditional scholars) could all write poems.

1.4.  The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries

If the thirteenth century saw a flowering of Sinhala prose literature, the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries saw a flowering of poetry as the process of secularization that had begun with prose continued into poetry. These Sinhala poems were written by monks using Buddhist themes, but they were modeled on classical Sanskrit court literature and thus became more secular in content. The most famous spate of sandesa (message poems) from this period were The Salalihini Sandesaya (The Message Poem Carried by the Salalihini Bird) and The Parevi Sandesaya (The Message Poem Carried by the Pigeon) by the monk Toṭagamuve Sri Rahula, who also wrote the Kavyasekhera (The Crown of Poetry). Two other well-known writers of the age were the monk Vidagama Maitreya, who wrote the Budugunalaṃkaraya, and the monk Vetteve, who wrote The Guttila Kavya (The Poem of Guttila). Increasing secularization resulted in a shift away from the earlier heavy Sanskritization of the language.

1.5.  The Sixteenth–Eighteenth Centuries

Unfortunately, Sinhala literary and linguistic creativity was short-lived. The arrival of Western European powers and subsequent colonial conquest by the Portuguese, Dutch, and British in succession from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries resulted in a period of decadence in Sinhala literature.

The only poet of significance during the sixteenth century was Alagiyavanna Mohottala, who wrote the Kusa Jataka (The Story of the Birth of the Bodhisattva as King Kusa), the Dahamsonda Kavya (The Poem on the Good Doctrine), the Subhasita (Auspicious Thoughts), and some panegyrics.

In the mid-eighteenth century there was a brief literary and religious revival in the central kingdom of Kandy, which had not yet been conquered by Western powers. It was spearheaded by the monk, Welivitiye Saranakara, and produced a considerable body of work in Pali, Sanskrit, and Sinhala. This literary renaissance was short-lived, however; the British conquered the entire island in 1815, colonial rule was established, and Sinhala language and literature became stagnant once again.

1.6.  The Nineteenth–Twentieth Centuries

When the first stirring of political nationalism occurred in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries it took the form of a literary and religious revival, and the long-standing Sri Lankan connection between religion, literature, and the national identity resurfaced. The phenomenal increase in literary activity was at first entirely religious, but eventually newer genres influenced by Western contact came to prominence, and a modern secular literature was born.

Sri Lanka is the home of the talented ones who shared their experiences of creativity, practice, theory, reflection, and knowledge. There are many outstanding Buddhist philosophers, preachers, writers and masters whose books and intellect made great contributions to Sri Lanka and the world.

Since the earliest times of Buddhism, Buddhist monks have played a central role in both spiritual and social matters. The monks were exhorted to work for the well-being of all, and as a result, they and the Buddhist temple became the center of spiritual and agricultural life in the Sri Lankan villages. The Western colonial governments discouraged this role and removed monks to the spiritual realm. With independence, this has begun to change, and the Sarvodaya Movement has actively incorporated monks in its effort. They participate in a series of training courses and are active in efforts to realize the Sarvodaya ideal of righteous action.

Among them, there are four famous Buddhist Sri Lankan writers in the nineteenth-twentieth centuries:

Venerable Polwatte Buddhadatta Thera (1887–1962) Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thera (1827–1911) Venerable Walpola Rahula (1907–1997)

Venerable Narada Maha Thera (1898¬1983)

LIFE AND WORKS OF FOUR WRITERS

1. VENERABLE POLWATTE    BUDDHADATTA THERA (1887–1962)

Venerable Ambalangoda Polwatte Buddhadatta Mahanayake Thera (A. P. Buddhadatta) (1887–1962) was a Theravada Buddhist monk and a professor of Buddhist philosophy at Vidyalankara University. In 1954, he was the first Sri Lankan monk to be awarded the Agga Maha Pandita by Burma (Myanmar). He wrote several books on the Pali language and was a member of the inaugural staff of Nalanda College, Colombo, and a member of the Ananda College staff.

He composed The Pali-English Dictionary, a unique handbook for students and research of Buddhist studies, Asian religion, and the ancient language.

Figure 2: Venerable Polwatte Buddhadatta Thera

 This Pali dictionary is an invaluable resource for many students. For example, one class in Buddhist philosophy at Delhi University, India, has one hundred students, so they needed one hundred copies. There were not enough books for sale and they often make copies from a photocopy shop. It is a favorite gift for students to exchange.

Now the Pali dictionary is available online. It has been incorporated into apps for iOS and Android as well as into web apps such as the Digital Pali Reader and SuttaCentral. The dictionary has even been translated into Chinese, Vietnamese, and other languages.

Other works of writer Venerable Polwatte Buddhadatta Thera:

• Pali Sahithya (1962)

• Oalibhasappawesaniya (Pali grammar in Burmese, 1908)
• Pali Nigandu (Burmese-English word builder for Pali, 1908)
• Buddhagosoppathi, (Pali book translated into Burmese, 1908)
• Bhidhamma Mathruka Swarupaya, (translation from Burmese to Sinhala, 1911)
• Pali Basappaweniya, (Sinhala translation, 1912)
• Visuddhi Magga Edition (1914)
• Pali Bashawatharanaya 1 (1923)
• Pali Bashawatharanaya 2 (1925)
• Pali Patawali (1926)
• Thribhasha Rathnakaraya (1928)
• Apadhana, Pali Edition (1929)
• Pali Bashawatharanaya 3 (1930)
• Pali Wakya Vivechanaya (1933)
• Pali Wakya Rachanawa ha Pariwarthana Parichaya (1947)

• Patamapaatawali (1948)
• Pali–Sinhala Dictionary (1950)
• Winya Winichchaya ha Uththara, Winichchaya Edition (1952)
• Thripitaka Suchiya (1953)
• Abhidhammawathara Edition (1954)
• Namarupa Parichcheda Edition (1954)
• Dhammapadhattakatha Edition (1956)
• Jinakalamali Sinhala Translation (1957)
• Namarupa Parichcheda English Edition (1914)

• Abhidhammawathara English Edition (1915)
• Ruparupa Wibhagaya English Edition (1915)
• Sammoha Winodhini English Edition (1923)
• Winaya Winichchaya & Uththara Winichchaya English

Edition (1927)

• Niddesa Atuwa (1940)
• New Pali Course 1 (1937)
• New Pali Course 2 (1938)
• Higher Pali Course (1951)
• Aids to Pali Conversation & Translation (1951)

2.           HIKKADUWE SRI SUMANGALA THERA (1827–1911)

Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thera (1827–1911) was a prominent Sri Lankan Buddhist monk who played a crucial role in the Buddhist revivalist movement in Sri Lanka during the nineteenth century.

He established Vidyodaya Pirivena, the “Monastic College of the Dawn of Knowledge,” with the aim of reviving and promoting Buddhist education and scholarship in Sri Lanka. The institution played a crucial role in preserving and propagating Buddhist teachings, as well as training Buddhist monks and scholars.

He played a significant role in the Panadura debate, which was a famous religious debate that took place in 1873 between Buddhist and Christian representatives. In 1912, he published a translation of the Mahavamsa from Pali into Sinhalese. The Mahavamsa is the most important Pali epic poem. “Mahavamsa” means “Great Chronicle.” It’s an historical poem in the Pali language that discusses the kings of Sri Lanka. The first version of the Mahavamsa dates back to the third and fourth centuries BC during the reign of King Vijaya. The Mahavamsa, Dipavamsa,

and Culavamsa (Small Chronicle) all together are sometimes known as Mahavamsa. They concern the royal dynasties of not only Sri Lanka, but the whole Indian subcontinent and is known as the world’s longest unbroken historical account. The consecration of Asoka and details of Selucus and Alexander have been detailed in it.

Figure 43: Most Venerable Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thera

 In modern times, Mahavamsa was significant in Sri Lanka. The Sinhalese people refer to Mahavamsa to claim that historically Buddhism is the religion of Sri Lanka.

Other literature of the writer Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thera:

• Translation of Mahavamsa to Sinhalese (1847)
• Brahma Dharmaya
• Warna Reethi (1873)
• Masarthu Lakshana (1858)
• Sidath Sangara Sannasa
• Kavya Shekhara Sannasa

• Balawatharatikawa
• Pali Namapada Malawa
• Kristhiyani Waada Wibhaathaniya
• Sathya Margaya
• Rivirasa
• Bhuddha Addahilla

3.  VENERABLE WALPOLA RAHULA (1907–1997)

Walpola Rahula was a Buddhist monk, scholar, and writer. He is one of the Sri Lankan intellectuals of the twentieth century.

In 1964, he became the Professor of History and Religions at Northwestern University, thus becoming the first bhikkhu to hold a professorial chair in the Western world. He also once held the position of Vice-Chancellor at the then-Vidyodaya University (currently known as the University of Sri Jayewardenepura).

He has written extensively about Buddhism in English, French, and Sinhalese. His book, What the Buddha Taught, is considered by many to be one of the best books written about Theravada Buddhism.

Apart from his world-renowned book, What the Buddha Taught, he published an enormous number of papers on Buddhism. Notable books written by him include:

• What the Buddha Taught
• History of Buddhism in Ceylon: The Anuradhapura Period: 3rd Century BC–10th Century AD
• Humour in Pali Literature and Other Essays
• The Heritage of the Bhikkhu: A Short History of the Bhikkhu in Educational, Cultural, Social, and Political Life
• Zen and the Taming of the Bull: Towards the Definition of Buddhist Thought: Essays

• The Heritage of the Bhikkhu: The Buddhist Tradition of Service

 4.  VENERABLE NARADA MAHA THERA (1898–1983)

Venerable Narada Maha Thera (1898–1983) is the author of The Buddha and His Teachings. It explains the basic doctrines and concepts of all Buddhist sects and is so popular that it has been translated into many languages.

Primary, middle school, and Buddhist high schools and colleges or universities from different perspectives and levels can approach the book’s information.

III. CONCLUSION

Many valuable books have been written by Eastern and Western scholars, Buddhists, and non-Buddhists alike, to present Buddha, Dharma, Sangha, the history, philosophy or language to those who are interested in Buddhism. Among them, the Pali-English Dictionary (Polwatte), Mahavamsa (translated by Hikkaduwa), What the Buddha Taught (Walpola Rahula) and The Buddha and His Teachings (Narada) are some of the most popular works.

Congratulations are due to learned Eastern and Western Buddhist writers for their laudable efforts to enlighten readers on the Buddha-Dhamma.

These four books have been often quoted and are often used as reliable sources. The authors have done a great service for Sri Lanka and the world.

These writers not only compose intellectual works, but also engage in Buddhist and social issues. They are known as the greatest writers of Sri Lanka and are well-honored and have been awarded many titles by Sri Lankans, as well as by people of other countries in the East and the West. Renowned institutions in Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Ireland, Italy, Hungary, and

Germany also bestowed felicitation degrees. They were well- versed in Sinhala, Pali, Sanskrit, and English languages and also had extensive knowledge in Buddhism, history, and archaeology.

 

Figure 4: Buddhist monks on almsround in Sri Lanka

 REFERENCES

Narada, Mahathera. The Buddha and His Teachings. Washington: BPE Pariyatti Editions,                                                                        November 24, 2020.

Ramstedt, Martin (2004). Hinduism in Modern Indonesia: A Minority Religion Between Local, National, and Global Interests. Routledge, 2004, 49.

Sinhala Sangha: Maha Theros of Past and Present (website), Accessed September 9, 2023, https://sinhalasangha.wordpress. com/2020/05/14/ven-hikkaduwe-sri-sumangala- m a h a - thero-1827-1911/

Theravada (website), Biography of Venerable Narada, accessed September 1, 2023. https://theravada.vn/tieu-su-dai- duc-narada/

Vihanage, Gunaseela. “Venerable Narada Maha Thera: A Biographical Sketch.” Narada Felicitation Volume. BPS. Retrieved July 26, 2017.

Wickremeratne, Swarna. Buddha in Sri Lanka: Remembered Yesterdays. New York: State University of New York Press,2006, 97.

***

 Fig. 1: Theravada monks on almsround. Photo courtesy of Laurentiu Morariu via Unsplash.

Fig. 2: Venerable Polwatte Buddhadatta Thera. Uploaded August 12, 2020 to Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Polwatte_Buddhadatta_Thera

Fig. 3: Most Venerable Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thera in Early Nineteenth [Twentieth] Century, circa early 1900s, Ceylon, last modified May 19, 2023, Wikipedia, h t t p s : / / en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hikkaduwe_Sri_Sumangala_Thera

Fig. 4: Buddhist monks in Sri Lanka. Wikimedia Commons, accessed September 20, 2023, https://commons.wikimedia. org/w/index.php?title=File:Buddhist_monks_in_Sri_Lank a.jpg&oldid=466195104

***

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIO-RELIGIOUS DEBATES IN SRI

LANKA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BUDDHISM

 

Venerable Professor Beligalle Dhammajoti

BA, Special; MA, Peradeniya; PhD, Benares Professor, Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka

Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. Whatsapp: +94-77-899-7838

I

Abstract

n the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, powerful western countries made a strong impact on the Buddhist culture

of Sri Lanka. The British rulers wanted a drastic change in Sri Lankan culture and they did everything to condemn Buddhist culture and the peaceful societal environment. Buddhism and its

pristine culture in Sri Lankan society was drastically changed by the Western impact. With the arrival of English administration, traditional Sinhala society was endangered. There were continual anti-Buddhist activities and socio-religious movements. Thousands of Christian books and pamphlets were published to condemn Buddhism and the Buddhist culture, and there were various debates on Buddhism, Christianity, and society. In this paper, the debates are classified and details are provided in order to understand the socio-religious milieu of that dark period. The qualitative research method is applied in this paper.

Introduction

Powerful western countries and the British Empire in particular had a significant impact on the Buddhist culture of Sri Lanka. The three militarily powerful nations invaded Sri Lanka and destroyed the pristine historical culture fostered by Buddhism. They are the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the British. The British rulers wanted a drastic change of Sri Lankan culture and to make use of its resources for their objectives. They did everything to condemn Buddhism, Buddhist culture, and a peaceful societal environment. Buddhism and the pristine culture of Sri Lankan society was drastically changed by these outside forces. The Westerners highly criticized the traditional Sri Lankan Buddhist rituals and social customs.

With the arrival of an English administration, traditional Sinhala Buddhist society was threatened and collapsed to a considerable extent. There were anti-Buddhist activities and socio-religious movements. Thousands of Christian books and pamphlets were published to condemn Buddhism and the culture of the island. There were various discussions and debates on Buddhism and Christianity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. In this paper, the debates and discussions are classified to a certain extent and tries to provide the details in order to understand the socio-religious milieu of that dark period.

Research Problem

The problem of this research is “What are the debates that took place during the nineteenth and twentieth century in Sri Lanka?” and “How do we classify those controversies? What is their nature, and what are the results of those controversies?”

Research Method

The research method applied in this paper is the qualitative research method. Using that system, a library survey was done and some associated scholars agreed to provide information. The information obtained from historical sources was identified and analyzed. The historical sources were mainly collected from the National Archives, Colombo, and Ruhuna University Library, Matara, Sri Lanka. The Sri Gnānaratana Library of Sri Vijaya Bimbaramaya, and Sri Sobhita Library, Purāna Mahā Viharaya, Hakmana were also very supportive in the search for ancient manuscripts, pamphlets, and books. The most difficult task of the research was to find old printed books and pamphlets.

Research Objective and Limits

The research objective of this paper is to reveal the hidden facts of socio-religious debates that took place in various parts of Sri Lanka during the colonial period, and to provide a proper understanding of the contemporary social and religious milieu of the aforesaid period in Sri Lanka. This research is confined to the socio-religious debates during the period of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Discussion

In the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, Sri Lankans had a heinous and gloomy period. “The country was in a chaotic situation as a result of the frequent wars between the foreign powers as well as among the local rulers themselves” (Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Vol. VII 2005: 501). During that period, they were subjected to oppression from a foreign power. The total period of foreign control and oppression was 443 years. During these four and half centuries, Sinhala Buddhist people suffered in various ways. Every day, they had to experience calamitous incidents. There were mass killings in many villages, genocidal attacks on innocent people, cruel actions against Buddhist monks, and devastation of temples to name but a few.

In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Western nations made a very strong and negative impact on the traditional culture of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. The three powerful nations invaded Sri Lanka and destroyed its pristine historical culture fostered by Buddhism over many centuries. They are the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the British. These foreign rulers were the dominant authority on the Sri Lankan culture, economy, law, political administration, and every other thing. They held the monopoly in any type of significant decision-making at their discretion. Even under this foreign yoke, very silently, Sinhala Buddhists were brave enough to safeguard their religious and cultural values.

It is clear that ancient Sinhalese Buddhist society was in a troubled societal situation. The teachings of early Buddhism have been neglected. The major reason was that Sri Lankan citizens had no time to engage in Buddhism. The British governors turned a deaf ear to the righteous requests of the common Sinhala Buddhist people.

At the outset, the Western scholars and administrators knew nothing of early Buddhist doctrines. So they visualized just the deteriorated form of Buddhist culture, and they began to highly criticize the socio-religious rituals and biographical history of the Buddha, and also the Buddhist Sangha society. From the Sinhala Buddhist society, there were no counterattacks for Western missionaries, and instead, Buddhists themselves started to examine their own culture and cultural weaknesses. At that period, we find a triangular background in the context of Buddhism and Sri Lankan society:

Early Buddhism (Pure Form)

Western impact                      Developed form of Buddhism (Deteriorated form)

Although the deteriorated form of Buddhism was practiced there, the pure form of Buddhist philosophy was hidden in the Buddhist palm leaf manuscripts, and they were well-safeguarded in the temple book cupboards and lockers. The teachings of the Buddha were actually in the canonical texts in the form of Palm leaf manuscripts. The Western civil servant scholars who had been posted to various administrative professions in Sri Lanka were enthusiastic about seeking the hidden treasure of Buddhist doctrine, but the foreign religious missionaries and some governors were eager to propagate Christianity, instead of focusing on ancient Buddhist texts. They quickly elevated Sinhala-Buddhist individuals by bestowing upon them titles and higher positions within the government.

Socio-Religious and Scholastic Debates

During this period, although it was a time of turmoil and trouble on the island, there were various discussions, dialogues, arguments, and controversies among Sri Lankan scholars. They can be classified into a few categories:

• Scholastic debates
• Debates on social issues
• Debates of Inter-Buddhist sects
• Inter-religious debates, and

• Quasi-religious debates and discussions

These learned debates appear to have been a characteristic feature of this period of literary and religious awakening (Encyclopedia of Buddhism: Vol. IV: 536). The controversies can be considered to be a sort of self-examination of that contemporary Sinhala society, and especially of the Buddhist Sangha society.

Scholastic Debates

Buddhavarsha-vādaya

This is a controversy over the issues of the Buddhist Era: a debate between Vidyodaya Pirivena and Vidyalankara Pirivena, Colombo. (A pirivena is a study center for novice monks). A book prepared on this was Buddhavarsha-vādaya (Debate on the Buddhist Era) published in 1908. This debate led to the upliftment of the educational standard of both the Vidyodaya and Vidyalankara institutions. They led to much scholarly research in the relevant subjects and the publication of treatises (E o B: 1979–1989:536).

Na Ṇa La Ḷa Vādaya

This debate was regarding the usage of these four consonants of the Sinhala alphabet. It was also between Vidyodaya Pirivena and Vidyalankara Pirivena. A book written on that subject was Na Ṇa La Ḷa bhedaya.

Adhimāsa-vādaya

In 1850, there was a debate on the usage of solar months and lunar months, especially on the religious usage of months. It continued for few years. At the beginning, the matter was discussed at an overnight chanting ceremony at Kaluvāmodara. There was a debate among various scholar monks such as Venerable Hikkaduwe Sumangala Thero and Bentara Atthadassi Thero. The result of the series of discussions and debates on that particular subject was the emergence of few scholarly books on the usage of months for Buddhist religious and ecclesiastical activities.

Māsaritulakshana explains the details of months and seasons, and it was written by Venerable Hikkaduwe Sumangala Thero in 1858.

Adhimāsadīpani is about the extra month of the year. It was authored by Venerable Bentota Atthadassi Thero.

Adhimāsaprakāshani is also about the extra month and prepared by Venerable Hikkaduwe Sumangala Thero.

Yachādhi māsa nirnaya is also on the usage of months, and authored by Venerable Rajgama

Chulasumana Thero, and published by E.C. Wijewardena and M. James Mendis in 1908.

It seems that many pamphlets and tracts appeared during this period are regarding the vinaya or disciplinary matters, and religious usages. Some of them are adhimāsabheda, adhimāsa- sangraha, and adhimāsa vibhāgaya.

Satya Darpanaya

Satya Darpanaya is a booklet explaining the religious days of Buddhism, including both the Sabbath Day and the four sacred days associated with the phases of the waning and waxing moon.

Here, Satya Darpanaya means Mirror of the Truth. It was authored by Venerable Dhammatilaka Thero, printed at Vidyāsāgara Press, and published by Adwin Prera Rajakaruna in 1924.

Kukavivādaya

Venerable Totagamuwe Sri Rahula Thero was an erudite scholar, writing Sinhala poetic books. Munidasa Kumaratunga (linguist, grammarian, poetic writer) challenged Venerable Rahula Thero’s erudition and learnedness. He argued saying that Rahula’s works can be considered to be a shadow of Sanskrit literature. A book on that subject was Kukavivādaya (Debate on Mal-Poetic Skills). Here, Enulasiri Darmawardhana of Bentota

wrote against Kumaratunga Munidasa. The media of debate was the newspaper, Swadesa Mitrayā (Indigenous Friend).

Milinda-prashna Vādaya

This was a scholastic debate done by way of dhamma discussions and arguments between Venerable Ambalangoda Devananda Thero and Venerable Kodagoda Upasena Thero on the famous post-canonical Pali treatise that deals with the dialogue between the Bactrian King Milinda and erudite monk Nagasena on controversial points of Buddhist doctrine. The original of Milinda-pañha is generally assigned to the period circa first century BC (E o B: Vol. VI: 683). Milinda-prashna Vādaya was very popular during that colonial period. Later, the collected literary matters of the discussions and argumentations of those erudite monks, were printed at Sevyashri Press, Colombo in a book, Milinda-prashna Vāda Nidānaya by P.A. Peiris in 1913.

(1)   Debates on Social Issues

There were some controversies regarding various castes of Sri Lanka during the period of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Although these arguments are considered the mean type of engagements, there is a sociological significance to understanding the contemporary Sinhala society of the aforesaid period. In 1818, Mudali A. Saram prepared a Kula Lekhanaya, a register of castes, and he submitted four reports of the caste system in Sri Lanka to Robert Brownrigg, the British Governor of Ceylon (SE Vol. 7: 518).

Books written on the subject of social castes:

1. Janavaṃsaya (1848) regarding the explanation of various castes
2. Kaurawa Rajawansaya (1915) on the uniqueness of a caste

• Soysa Charitaya (1904) on the exceptionality of a caste

1. Kevul Rodi Kolama (1904) on the details of a caste In the debates of various castes, we find many unsuitable matters in the contents of the debates. The statements were very shameful and dishonorable in nature. They can be considered to be unsuitable and unfair debates, and they were not conducive to any progress of society. They demonstrated a sort of deterioration of traditional Sinhala society. But, it is to be noted here that they bear sociological significance.

(2)   Debates of Inter-Buddhist Sects

Pārupanavādaya

There were various debates among Buddhist sects. The well-known controversy was “the Pārupanavādaya” which was related to the mode of wearing robes by monks. The question was whether it is good for monks to wear robes covering both shoulders or covering just one side. Venerable Ratanapala Thero was in favor of ekaṃsapārupanaya, covering just one shoulder. The book written on this subject was Ekamsa-pirimadulu Peraveema. A collection of articles appeared in the Shri Lankodaya newspaper. Some books appeared on the subject, Pārupanasikha and Pārupanapāliya written by Venerable Kodagoda Gnānāloka Thero. The both were regarding the minor disciplinary rules of wearing robes. This was a good sign for Sinhala Sangha society. It paved the way for scrutinizing certain disciplinary rules of monks.

Dussila Vivādaya

This means “Debate on Immorality.” There were debates between the Siam sect and Amarapura sect, and some controversies held between the Rāmañña sect and Amarapura sect regarding the higher-ordination status (upasampadā) and other disciplinary matters of Buddhist monks. Because of these inter-sectarian controversies, certain books were prepared on that subject. There was a debate called “Batapote-vādaya” among the erudite monks of Siam, Amarapura, and Ramañña sects. It was on the August 20, 1892. Before that, there were series of controversies regarding the ethical and unethical aspects of monks. A few volumes have been written on the debates and dhamma discussions, Dussila Saranāgamanādi Vinishcaya (The Investigation of Unethical Acceptance of Refuges), Sramana- dussila Saranāgamana Vibhāga (The Analysis of Impious Taking of Refuges), Dussila-sangraha Bhedaya (On Immoral Aspects of Monks). These volumes are very rare now and cannot be found, but fragments of details are found in certain collections.

Mrammawamsa-viniccaya: This was written with the cooperative effort of the monks of the Amarapura sect in support of the Amarapura Sangha members (1872) and the book was written with the assistance of Burmese monks in favor of the Amarapura sect.

Syāmanikayadipaniya: This was written by K.L. Perera in support of Siam Sect and published in 1880. It contains the critical remarks of Mrammawamsa-viniccaya.

Sādhupattapūraṇi: This book is really from Burma and it was written by Venerable Siri Kosallālankāra Thero (Burmese monk) under the guidance of Venerable Ukkaṃvansamāla Thero (Burmese monk). It was in the Pali language and written in Sinhala characters by Venerable Kodagoda Upasena Thero of Saddhammodaya Pirivena, Panadure. It was printed by

1. Daniel Fernando for the use of Pali scholars in Sri Lanka regarding Dussila vivādaya.

Sādhujanappasādanī: This book was written by Devananda Thero of Ambalangoda and published by T.G. Richard De Silva and printed at the Mahabodhi Press, Colombo.

Sammōha-nāsanī: This was a work of Venerable Kodagoda Upasena Thero in favor of the Rāmañña sect, and printed at Mahabodhi Press, Colombo, and published by M.R.P. Gunawardene.

Abaddha Simā Vinishcaya: This is authored by Venerable Kodagoda Upasena Thero in order to explain pure disciplinary rules, and it was printed at Mahajana Yantrālaya, and published by D. J. Amaratunga in 1925.

Visungāma Sīmā Vinichchhaya: This is a highly scholastic Buddhist work written by Venerable Aggadhaammabhiwansa Mahathero, Mahavisuddharamaya, Mandalay, Burma in relation to Visuṃgāma sīmā-vivādaya. This was printed and published by J. D. Dharmasena at the Grantaprakasa Press, Colombo in 1926.

Ramañña-nikāya-dipanī: This   is   a   book   completed by Venerable Wimalananda Tissa Thero and Venerable Ñānindāsabha Thero in 1904 (2447 BE), and it provides the ecclesiastical history of the Rāmañña sect of Sri Lanka. It was published at Saddhammapakāsaka Press, Colombo by C.P. Kandambi.

Internal Debates of Buddhist Monks and Laity

In the context of Buddhist culture, there were debates between lay followers and monks. The theme was the piousness of monks and the lay followers. Here, we find controversies of blaming others on private matters. Some books have been written on the actions and procedure of monks’ life.

Dussīla Sangrahaya: This booklet was written on the religiousness and immoral acts of some monks and published in 1888 AD.

Dumbara Sangabata: Dumbara is a village in Sri Lanka where Sangabata mentioned “the boiled rice of monks.” Again, it sarcastically means the immoral acts of certain monks. It was published in 1894 AD.

Rālahāmi Jātakaya: “Rālahāmi” is a leading person in a village, Here, Jātakaya means a story. This is written in a sarcastic tone regarding the immoral acts of certain monks. It was published in 1902 AD.

(3)   Christian Missionary Works Opposed to Buddhism

The Wesleyan Mission started a printing press in Colombo in 1815 for Christian propaganda. The Colombo Auxiliary Religious Tract Society was founded in 1825 and issued religious tracts against Buddhism. The Ceylon Mission of the Church Missionary Society started a press in 1822 for Christian propaganda. The Baptist Mission started a press in Kandy and changed its title to “Sinhalese Tract Society,” and was incorporated with the Ceylon branch of the “Christian Vernacular Education Society” in 1859. The Roman Catholic Press was formed in 1843 (TKT: 1973: 183). The rapid development of propaganda was easy with these newly established presses. With a circulation of millions of books and pamphlets, the missionaries began their missionary activities easily.

Circulation of Books and Tracts Against Buddhism

To condemn and weaken the Sinhala Buddhist Society and to promote the Christian religion, Christians, and their lifestyle, the missionaries circulated many books and tracts.

Kariyawasam quotes Murdoch and Nicholson: “The Colombo Bible Society issued 19,000 Bible copies, 35,000 New Testaments and 59,500 scripture portions up till 1865. The Baptist Mission printed and circulated 40,100 tracts and books in Sinhalese in the six years of its existence from 1841” (TKT: 1973:184). The Sinhalese Tract Society printed and distributed tracts, handbills, pamphlets, and periodicals up to 1859. Wesleyan Mission circulated one and a half a million books on the island among the Sinhalese Buddhists and professed Christians (TKT: 1973:184-5). This illustrates how the Christian missionaries took every step to propagate their theistic teachings among the Sinhala people. Their objective was complete eradication of Buddhism from the island of Sri Lanka.

Durlabdhi Vinodani: Published on August   23,1862, this appears to be an answer to “Krishtiyāni Pragñapti” and “Buaddha Labdhi Parikshāva” of the Christians. (TKT: 1973: 201).

Some books and tracts published critical of Buddhism:

Sudharma Prakaranaya Bauddha Labdhi Parikshāva

 Satyārtha Prakāshaya Bauddha Vākya Khandanaya Kristiyāni Pragnapti

Satya Dvāraya

Magazines: Bauddha Vākya Khandanaya, Satya Dvajaya, Bala Pradipaya

Newspapers: Arunodaya (Roman Catholic Weekly) Lakrivikirana (1865)

Subharanci Horanewa (Dutch Reformed Church)

Gnanārtha Pradīpaya (1866)

Satyālankāra (1873 Reformed Church)

This clearly shows that the Christian missionaries were extremely engaged in religious oppression and propaganda by attempting to change the cultural mentality of Sinhala Buddhists.

Buddhist Response to Christian Missionary Works

Buddhists started a printing press at Galle (1862) and another one at Kotahena. The book, Sudarsanaya, was written by Venerable Hikkaduwe Sumangala as a reply to the following Christian books: Sudharma Prakaranaya, Bauddha Labdhi Pārikshava, Satyartha Prakasaya, Bauddha Vakya Khandanaya, Kristiyani Pragnapt, and Satya Dvaraya. (TKT: 1973:202-3). Kristiyāni Vāda Mardanaya, Vol. I was printed in 1862. Venerable Mohottiwatte Gunananda Theros’ Samyag Darsanaya was published in 1863 as a reply to Christian works. In 1863, a Buddhist scholar, Batuwantudave Pandit, published Satyārtha Pradipikā. In 1864, Buddhists published Labdhi Tulāva, a monthly journal. Vibhajja Vādaya was a series of critical notes on the Bible circulated by Buddhists. They started a newspaper Lakmini Pahana, a fortnightly, in 1862 (TKT: 1973:207-211).

(4)   Inter-religious Debates

Venerable Migettuwatte Gunananda Thero of the Dipaduttamaramaya, Kotahena,

Colombo, was a brilliant orator monk, and he gave leadership to the first four major debates on the Buddhist side. He, with the help of other learned monks, challenged the Christian missionaries to public debates. The common people and Buddhist monks needed a serious controversy to clear the misguided comments.

Baddegama-vādaya

The first famous debate on Christianity and Buddhism was held at the Ganegama Hall in the village of Baddegama in the southern province of Sri Lanka on February 8 in 1863. On the Christian side, John Adward Hunupola Nilame was chief of the debating team and from the Buddhist side, Venerable Mohottiwatte Gunānanda Thero was the chief debater. The major titles for the debate were Creator, Savior, and Eternal Divine World.

Udanvita-vādaya

The second controversy was held at the Udanvita temple, Udanvita on February 1,1866. Venerable Mohottiwatte Gunānanda Thero was chief debater on the Buddhist side, and Venerable Bulatgama Thero, Venerable Kahave Thero were the supporting monks. On the Christian side, Reverend Parsons, Reverend Silva, and Reverend Gunawardene were the debaters. The major topics chosen for debating were the “Knowledge of Yehovah,” and “Omniscience of the Buddha.”

Gampola-vādaya

The third famous Buddhist and Christian controversy was “Gampola-vādaya” which was held at the Kahatapitiye Bodhimalu Viharaya (temple) on June 9 and 10, 1871. Reverend Father C.P. Ransinghe was the chief orator on the Christian side, with Reverend Father James Carter, Reverend Father Gunasekara Bertholamues, and Reverend Samuel Prera as supporters. On the Buddhist side, Venerable Mohottiwatte Gunānanda Thero was the chief debater and Don Andries de Silva and Pandit Batuvantudawe were the supporting lay devotees.

Pānadurā-vādaya

This was the historical controversy between Buddhists and Christians, and it marked a turning point in the course of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. It was held on August 26 and 28, 1873 at Panadure. The chief orator on the Christian side was Reverend Father David de Silva, and Venerable Mohottiwatte Gunananda Thero was the chief debater on the Buddhist side. The booklet written on this controversy was called Pānadurā- vādaya. The complete debate was published and circulated. An English translation was published by John Copper of the Ceylon Times (later Times of Ceylon) and J.M. Peebles published the debate in a book form. This pamphlet had an unprecedented circulation and popularity abroad. A copy fell into the hands of Colonel Olcott whose interest was immediately roused by the events taking place in Sri Lanka (E o B: Vol. VII: 2007:207).

Ūrugodawatte-vādaya

Nine years after the demise of Venerable Mohottiwatte Gunananda, the chief orator of Buddhism in famous debates, there was another controversy which was held at Ūrugodawatta on September 3 and 10, 1899. The location was the Tarkadesana Hall at Ūrugodawatta. Since the chief orator of the Buddhist team had passed away, Venerable Mohottiwatte Janānanda Thero came to the front as the chief debater of this controversy. On the Christian side, C. Silva (Christian preacher) and Reverend Father E.P. Fonseka took the responsibility. Ūrugodawatte Vādaya was the manuscript published about the controversy.

(5)   Quasi-religious Debates and Discussions

During the aforesaid period, there were certain discussions and debates on semi-religious matters, at times in rural villages, or in city areas. The booklets written on the subjects are full of comparative studies pertaining to Buddhist doctrine with socio- economic issues.

Devapūja Vikāsanī: This booklet was prepared by Venerable Valane Wimalananda Thero in order to explain the significance of offerings to gods, goddesses, and divine beings like God Vishnu. It was printed at Panadure Press and published by M. D. Salgadu of Panadure. The year of publication is not mentioned and it seems, according to the context, it was before 1924.

Ānisamsa Vatthavāda Vinicchaya: This book was written by an erudite monk but his name is not given in the book. The content suggests that the author bears a deep knowledge in the Buddhist canonical texts. It explains the significance of kathina kusala (powerful wholesome energies of kathina in relation with the rains retreat period of Buddhist monks). It was printed and published in 1907 by K.B. Abedheera for the welfare of monks and the Buddhist Order.

Nature of the Debates

In these inter-religious debates, we find a sarcastic tone in the arguments and discussions, and it is a peculiar characteristic. There weren’t any physical struggles or fighting, and they completed all the debates in a friendly manner. Whenever they addressed the debater of the opposite side, they began with the words, “my friend” or “our friend” or “our Christian friend” or “our Buddhist friend.” This respectful address was a good sign of later transactions. These debates, in a way, paved the way for proper understanding of the weak points of their own way of religious teachings.

Conclusion

During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Sri Lankans experienced the strong impact of Western countries on the ancient Sinhala culture and Buddhist monks. Therefore, in order to find a solution, the Buddhist scholars decided to go for debates and discussions. It was proper decision-making of the Sangha members and the laity. The debates of three Buddhist sects also pointed to the appropriate understanding of disciplinary rules and inner purity of Sangha members. The scholastic and inter-religious debates gave good guidance for creating a proper background for a renaissance movement in Sri Lanka. It seems that this milieu of debates was a good sign of progress, and they have thrown new light on the conceptual modernization in the context of the Sangha society, and again it paved the way for the organizational modernization in Sri Lankan Buddhist society.

REFERENCES

• Aggadhaammabhiwansa, Visungāma Seema Vinichchhaya. Colombo: J. D. Dharmasena, 1926.
• Bastian, D. “De Soysa Character or the Life of Charles Henry de Soysa,” in Sinhala Daily News Press. Colombo: 1904.
• Buddharakkhita, Reverend Sri, Jathibheda Lakshanaya Hewath Janawamsaya Nam Loka Niti Sangrahaya. Ariyapala, M.B. Colombo: S. Godage and Brothers, 2003.
• Dharmabandhu, S. Pānadure Vvādaya, 1908.
• Dharmabandhu, T.S. Udanvita Vādaya. Wellampitiya,
• Dhirasekera, and Weeraratne, W.G., eds. Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Vol. IV. Sri Lanka: Department of Buddhist Affairs. Government of Sri Lanka, 1979–1989.
• Gunawardana, P. Gampala Vādaya. Balapitiya, 1947.
• Kandambi, P. Colombo. Saddhammapakāsaka Press.
• Kariyawasam, “Religious Activities and the Development of a New Poetical Tradition in Sinhalese 1852–1906.” (Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy atthe University of London, 1973), accessed 9/2/23, https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29003/1/10673247.pdf
• Peiris, A. Milinda-prashna Vāda Nidānaya. Colombo: Pieris, Sevyashri Press, 1913.

• Ryam, Caste in Modern Ceylon. Colombo: Wijitha Yapa Publications, 1903.
• Somapala, A. Ūrugodawatte Vvādaya. Colombo: 1947.
• Tissa, Venerable  Wimalananda   and   Ñānindāsabha,

Venerable. Ramañña-nikāya-dipanī, (2447 BE).

• Upasena, Venerable Kodagoda Thero, Abaddha Simā Colombo: D. J. Amaratunga, 1925.
• Upasena, Venerable Kodagoda Sammōha Nāsani.

Panadura: M.R.P. Gunawardhana, 1911.

• Weeraratne, G., ed. Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Vol. VI. Fascicle 3. Sri Lanka: Department of Buddhist Affairs, Government of Sri Lanka, 2002.
• Weeraratne, G., ed. Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Vol.

VII. Fascicle 2. Sri Lanka: Department of Buddhist

Affairs, Government of Sri Lanka, 2004.

• Wijayathunga, Harishcandra, ed. Sinhala Encyclopedia, 7. Colombo: Department of Cultural Affairs, 1989.
• Wikramanayaka,  Don                Sekasahita

Simabandhnayak. Matara: Sudarshana Press, 1924.

• Wimalananda, Venerable Valane (before 1924). Devapujā Vikāsanī. Panadure: D. Salgadu.

Special Discussion

• The author had an informative discussion with Venerable Kalupahana Piyaratana Thero (BA and MA in Buddhism) on the subject.

Abbreviations

• E o B: Encyclopaedia of Buddhism
• SE: Sinhala Encyclopedia
• TKT: Thesis of Kariyawasam

***

RELEVANCE OF SECTARIANISM TO THE BUDDHIST REVIVAL IN CEYLON DURING THE BRITISH PERIOD

 

Venerable Taldena Ariyawimala

Senior Lecturer

Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies, University of Ruhuna

Matara, Sri Lanka.

Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. Phone: 0112343298

I

Abstract

t is a unique event in the history of Ceylon that the emergence of three Buddhist Saṅgha sects (nikāya) occurred within two centuries beginning in the eighteenth century AD. The political instability caused by the weakening of the traditional Sinhalese state in the upper-country of Sri Lanka and the emergence of regional states and the power struggles between them intensified the economic, educational, cultural and membership decline. The end result was that Sinhalese who worked independently were operating with dependent thinking.

The only cultural action that the local people could take to get out of that harsh context and stand strong was to revive Buddhism. Realizing the decline of the Buddhism at that time, Venerable Sarankara Sangharaja began the process of enlightening the people culturally and educationally. The Buddhist people, as well as the rulers who led the state at that time, understood the importance of rebuilding the order of Buddhist monks (Bhikkhu-sāsana). Under their auspices, a leading monk from Siam, Venerable Upali Thero, visited Sri Lanka and raised a lineage of high Ordained Buddhist monks. That noble act was for the good of all who did not obey the foreign forces. Thereby, a group of virtuous monks in the Up and Down country of Sri Lanka established their power. After a short period of time, the principles of monks that led to the awakening of the nation began to change gradually due to certain reasons. The end result was that the monks who could lead the nation were divided. After this, the monks who lived in the south took the lead in the Sāsana revival. They were given leadership by Venerable Ambagahapitiye Gnanavimalatissa. They received Upasampadā (high ordination) from Arakan in Burma and founded a new sect in Sri Lanka called Amarapura Nikāya. That was successful as a remedy for the unhappy situation in Buddhism at that time. It is evident by the fact that many monks from the southern joined the new Buddhist sect. That reform movement led to the revival of the Buddhist Dispensation in Sri Lanka only in a certain period of time. Venerable Ambagahawatte Sarankara once again, due to some ideologies about the purity of high ordination (Upasampadā), went to the land of Rāmañña in Burma with the help of Southern Country dignitaries, received Upasampadā there, returned to Sri Lanka with the name of Venerable Indasabhavaranjanasami and started the Rāmañña Nikāya in 2407 BC (1864 AD). Thus, in a century and a half, Sri Lankan monks’ dispensation had to be renewed three times, maintaining its high standards of ordination and discipline with superior preparation. When discipline is secured, Buddhist dispensation is preserved. The primary purpose of establishing the monk sect is to establish the security of Buddhism and to revive the cultural and academic revival associated with it in the country.

Introduction

Research Methodology

Qualitative research method was used and literature sources were consulted and primary and secondary sources were also consulted.

Objectives of the Study

The purpose of this research is to study the facts about the modern Buddhist sects that arose in Sri Lanka from the middle of the eighteenth century to the end of the nineteenth century and the Buddhist revival caused by those sects.

Scope and Significance of the Study

Following the reinstatement of high ordination (Upasampada) in Sri Lanka in 1753 AD, the Sangha society underwent a division into three prominent sects of monks over a period of approximately 110 years. An examination of the factors influencing this schism reveals the presence of external elements beyond those directly associated with dhamma (Buddhist doctrine) and Vinaya (disciplinary rules). While the schisms in early Buddhism, occurring about a century after the Buddha’s passing, were rooted solely in matters of discipline, they were thus amenable to resolve through reference to the Buddha’s teachings. The sectarian divisions that emerged in Sri Lanka from the eighteenth century onwards were predominantly influenced by external factors, elements such as regional distinctions between the upper and lower country and caste- related issues played a significant role in these divisions. The divisions did not manifest in relation to dhamma and Vinaya, but rather in matters pertaining to Vinaya. Nonetheless, the division of the Sangha society into these sects did not lead to a decline in overall order. On the contrary, it facilitated religious and academic developments associated with Buddhism. The significance of this research lies in its investigation of how the sectarian division within the Sangha society influenced the promotion of Buddhism in the nineteenth century.

Review of the Relevant Literature

1. Brief Introduction to History of the Origin of Buddhist Sects in Sri Lanka

The first schism in Buddhist history is found after the Second Buddhist Council. The monks attached to Theriya tradition pointed out reasons to ignore Ten Inconvenient Objects (dasa-akapa-vastu) but Vajjiputtaka monks refused to accept it. Therefore, ten thousand monks organized a council against Theravada and separated under the name of Mahāsaṅghika. This marks the first beginning of sectarianism in the Buddhist Order. After that, within about a century, they grew to seventeen sects. Subsequently, a new division occurred as a result of the expulsion of a group of monks from the Sangha community following the third Buddhist Council.

They received ordaination again and divided into nine sects and prepared separate scriptures instead of the pure Buddhist Teachings. It must be mentioned that all the sects were confined India.

The first sectarian divide in Sri Lanka occurred during the King Vaḷagambā period. The reason for this was the disciplinary problem (Kula-saṃsagga) caused by King Vaḷagambā’s personal dedication of the Abhayagiri temple to Venerable Mahātissa. Based on that action, the monks of the Mahā Vihara rejected the association of the residents of the Abhayagiri Vihara. They then separated from the Mahā Vihara under the name “Abhayagiriya.” They accepted the teachings of the Dhammaruchi (from India) sect and became known as the Dharmaruchi sect. It is mentioned in Mahāvaṃsa and Jātakaṭṭhakathā that a sect called Mahīshasaka also existed in Sri Lanka. It is said in those sources that the Faxian Monk (Fa-Hien, Fa-hsien and Sehi, was a Chinese Buddhist monk and translator who traveled by foot from China) took the Vinaya-piṭaka, Dīgha-nikāya and Saṃyutta-nikāya of

Sutta-piṭaka belonging to the Mahishasaka sect to China.

During Gotābhaya’s reign, monks who belongs to Vaitulyavāda were banished from the country. As a result, King Mahāsena destroyed everything belonging to the Mahā Vihāra as per the advice of a monk named Saṅghamitra who came to Sri Lanka from India with the intention of taking revenge on the monks living in the Mahā Vihara. King Mahāsena built the Jetavanārāma within the Mahāvihāra and offered it to a monk named Dakkhiṇārāma Vihāravāsi Tissa. Because of this indisciplined act of King Mahāsena, the monks of Mahāvihāra left the temple. As a result, this temple came under the control of Dakkhiṇagiri monks. From then on they came to be known as Sāgalika Nikāya or Jetavana Nikāya. Thus, three sects named Mahāvihāra, Abhayagiri, and Jetavana arose in the early period of Sri Lankan history. All these sects existing at that time were united by King Mahā Parākramabāhu who reigned in the Polonnaru era.

2.  Emergence of Modern Sangha Sects in Sri Lanka Siam Sect (Siyamopali-Vaṃsika-Mahā-Nikāya)

Figure 1. A wall painting which depicts Weliwita Sri

Saranankara Sangharaja Thero, Founder of Siyam Nikaya

Then once again in the six century, the decline of Sri Lankan Buddhist dispensation happened gradually. Foreign invasions by the Portuguese, Dutch, and English nations greatly affected this. During the reign of King Vimaladharmasuriya I, he took the High Ordination (Upasampadā) from Rakkhanga and Arakan areas in Burma and re-established the high ordination in Sri Lanka, but it was limited to a short time. During the Kandy Kingdom, the monks who lived in Sri Lanka were in extreme decline in their religious discipline. The monks living in the temples also behaved like the common lay people who led a lustful life. Therefore, many monks working in temples at that time were known by another name, “Ganinnanse.” The political instability caused by the weakening of the traditional Sinhalese state in Kandy and the emergence of regional states and the power struggles between them intensified the economic, educational, cultural, and membership decline. The end result was that Sinhalese who worked independently were operating with dependent thinking. The only cultural action that the local people could take to get out of that environmental harshness and stand strong was to revive Buddhism. Realizing the decline of the Buddha’s teachings, Venerable Weliwitya Saranankara started the process of awakening the people culturally and educationally. The Buddhist people, as well as the rulers who led the state at that time, understood the importance of recreating the Sasana. Later, under their patronage, a leading monk from Siam, Venerable Upali Thero, was brought to Ceylon and worked to raise a lineage of disciplined monks. Accordingly, on July 19, 1753 AD, at Malwathu Vihara Seema Malaka, monks including Kobbekaduwe Thero and Welivita Saranankara Thero received high ordination and they re-created the Theria Bhikkhu lineage. The lineage of Theriya monks was known as the Shyamopali Maha Nikaya because it started with the chief monks of Siam (Thailand).

There are two temples (sides) of Siam sect called Asgiri and Malwatu. During the reign of Polonnaru, there were two groups of monks, Ganthadūra and Vipassanādūra, and the monks following Ganthadūra were villagers and those who followed Vipassanādūra were Araññavāsī. Inspired by that tradition, the Malwathu Vihāra sect is from the Gāmavāsī group giving the priority to Ganthadūra, while the Asgiri Vihāra sect descended from the Vipassanādūra or Araññavāsī. There is a difference of opinion as to which of the two sects of monks, Malwatu and Asgiri, is more ancient. It is reported that Araññavāsī monks came to Yapahuwa from Dimbulagala with the Kalinga Magha invasion of Rajarata around 1215 AD. There are reports that among those who came to Walasgala area of Yapahuwa, one group came to Seṅkaḍagala Asgiriya (Kandy). “Acchagiri” from Pali was translated into Sinhala as “Asgiri.” Monks who were in temples such as Gadaladeniya Viharaya and Lankatilaka Viharaya of the Kandy period belongs to the Gāmavāsī sect. It seems that Malwatu Vihāra stood out more than Asgiri Vihāra due to the presence of Venerable Sarankara Sangharaja in the Malvatu Vihāra and the presence of Venerable Upali, the founder of the Siam sect, and the fact that he was very close to the royal palace. Information about the history of these two temples can be known from both the documents of Asgiri Vihāra Vaṃsaya and Seṅkaḍagala Uposathārāma and its historical background.

The Siam sect, which started in 1753 AD, had split into eight factions by around 1986. There were many reasons for this. One of the reasons was the travel difficulty in going to the upper country of Sri Lanka (Kandy) to obtain high ordination. Buddhist monks living in faraway areas throughout Sri Lanka also have to go to Kandy, Malwatu, and Asgiri temples to receive Upasampadā. At that time, transport and road facilities were not adequate. In addition, the indifference of the monks who lived in the up-country of Sri Lanka towards the monks who lived in the south is another reason. The up-country and low-country division was strong at that time. It is best confirmed by the fact that many of the monks who split into different factions from the Siam sect resided in the southern area of Sri Lanka. Also, the Kandyan monks belonging to the Siam sect considered only people belonging to the Radala and Agragama castes, which are considered to be superior among the castes, to be eligible for ordination. Apart from those two castes, the decision not to provide high ordination to the people belonging to other castes which were considered inferior is also one of the reasons that affected the division of the parties. Other reasons include the defiance of the Malwatu sect monks against Venerable Bentara Atthadassi’s stance on the age requirement for Upasampada. Currently, the karaka-sabha which administers the two Asgiri and Malwatu temples belonging to the Siam sect, is represented only by monks selected from the temples belonging to the Kandy area. It is a tradition that has been maintained since the beginning by the recommendation of the king at that time. That is another reason why low-country monks are separated.

The sect of monks thus separated:

1. Siyamopali vanshika Malwatu vihara parshava (1753 AD)
2. Siyamopali vanshika Asgirivihara parshava (1765 AD)
3. Siyamopali vanshika Sri Kalyani Samagri Dharma Maha Sangha Sabhava (1855 AD)
4. Siyamopali vanshika Kotte sri Kalyani Samagri Sangha Sabhava ( 1894 AD)
5. Siyamopali vanshika Uwa parshava (1939 AD)
6. Siyamopali vanshika Vanavasa parshava (1968 AD)
7. Siyamopali vanshika Dambulu Wihara parshava (1979 AD)
8. Siyamopali vanshika Sri Rohana Sangha Sabhava (1986 AD).

Sri Lanka Amarapura Mahā Saṅgha Sabhāva

Figure 2. Most Ven. Ambagahapitiye Sri Gnanawimalatisssa Maha Thera, Founder of Amarapura

 Ambagahapitiya Gnanavimala Tissa Sāmaṇera was a student of Bowala Dhammananda Thero belonging to the Siam sect. He was educated as a student of Most Venerable Saṅgharāja. But he did not get a chance to receive high ordination from the Malwatu temple because of the caste issue. According to the Dambadeni katikāvata (ecclesiastical codes of Dambadeni)

, only those who belonged to the Radala cast and Agragama cast are eligible to receive Upasampadā. Following this rule in the Dambadeni discourse, they did not give high ordination to those belonging to other castes. Therefore, Gnanavimalatissa Sāmaṇera, who was a resident of the low-country, could not receive the Upasampadā. Knowing that, the nobles who lived in the low-country of Sri Lanka at that time decided to send him to Thailand to receive the Upasampadā. Accordingly, in 2342 BC or 1798 AD, he boarded a ship from the port of Galle and left for Thailand with four monks and four lay people. He set out for Thailand without any expectations, but on the way he was told by the sailors that Buddhism is still pure in Burma, so he abandoned the difficult journey to Siam and landed in Burma. After coming to Amarapura, which was the capital at

that time, he received the patronage of the Burmese King Maha Dhammarajadhiraja and received the Upasampadā under the Gnanabhiwansa Dhamma Senapati Sangharaja. Other people also received the high ordination there.

He then went to Sri Lanka and performed a high ordination ceremony under the supervision of Venerable Aggasara from Burma at Udakukkhepa Sima in Mādu River, Balapitiya Galle, and established the Amarapura Saṅgha sect in 2344 BC. (1802 AD). After the establishment of the Amarapura sect, the majority of monks residing in the low-country areas joined the sect. In the initial period, sectarianism was rooted in issues of dharma discipline, but later the reasons for sectarianism were considered to be extremely personal issues, such as castes and clans. They were divided into different parties based on their Saṅgha generations. At present, the Amarapura Nikaya consists of twenty-two such parties and Saṅgha societies. There is a Mahānāyaka position in each Saṅgha Sabha. At present, all its Saṅgha Sabha jointly form the Supreme Saṅgha Sabha and one name is elected to the title of Supreme Mahānāyaka from among the Mahānāyaka Theros representing the respective parties. Also, one monk is appointed as the chairman of all Saṅgha Sabhā. Even though there are many factions/divisions, they act as one Saṅgha Sabhā.

Sri Lanka Ramñña Mahā Nikāya

Figure 3. Most Ven. Ambagahawatte Saranankara Maha Thera, Founder of Sri Lanka Ramañña Nikaya

As the third Buddhist sect of Sri Lanka, the Rāmañña sect is based on the problems related to discipline. The first pioneer of the Rāmañña Mahā Nikāya, Ambagahawatte Saranankarakara Thero, was first ordained as a student of Venerable Akmeemana Sobitha Thero belonging to the Siam sect. In 1855 AD, he received the Upasampadā at Malwatu Vihāra, but due to the problems related to its credibility, the Upasampadā was rejected and in 1856, he received the Upasampadā again in the area of Kalyani river Udakukkhepa Sīma. Frustrated by the ideologies that arose about that Upasampadā, he was ordained and received the high ordination again in the Amarapura sect. As the various ideologies of Simāsankaravāda and Daḷhikammavāda arose in the Amarapura sect, they were very eager to get rid of it and get a pure high ordination again. His only intention was to obtain pure ordination. Therefore, in the year 1861 AD, he went to Ramayana in Burma and received ordaination from the Saṅgha led by Most Venerable Ñeyādhammabhi Gnanakittisiri Saṅgharāja Thero. That high ordination obtained at Visungama Baddha sīma was purified by doing daḷhikamma at Udakukkhepa Sīma. Because his teacher and other monks were village dwellers, he also conducted a daḷhikamma from Vanavāsī monks in Prague. Thus, after performing Upasampadā and two daḷhikamma in the land of Rāmañña, he was satisfied with the belief of pure high ordination and came to Sri Lanka in the year 1862 AD with the honorific title of “Indasabhavaranjnanasami.” Then, along with Most Venerable Vanavāsi Varapitiye Sumitta and Puwakdandawe Pannnananda, Sri Lanka Rāmañña Mahā Nikāya was established by holding the first Upasampadā in the territory of Mahmodara Ginganga Udakukkhepa Sīma in Galle on July 13, 1863.

Sri Lanka Rāmañña Mahā Nikāya is unique among the sects. The austerity and monastic principles found in traditional monastic society are most evident in the Ramayana monks. This sect practiced usage of the gotu-atta (natural umbrellas made by sesame leaves), wearing of robes by covering both shoulders, usage of the bowl for foods, and wearing of robes made of whip-colored fabric. Additionally, caste is not considered for ordination. The administrative activities of that sect are carried out under the one Mahānāyaka Thero. For that, he gets the support of the monks holding the positions of Anunāyaka. The judicial affairs of the sect are carried out under the leadership of the judicial leader, Adikaraṇa Saṅghanāyaka. The Chief Registrar is the executive officer of all administrative affairs. A separate post has been appointed to carry out the high ordination activities. It is known as the saññāalekhakādhikarī. For the development of the sect, there are four development councils, Pariyatti Sabhā, Patipatti Sabhā, Nikāya Development Council, and Social Development Council. The smallest unit of denominational administration is the local Saṅgha Sabhā. Forty- eight such regional Saṅgha Sabhā are functioning throughout Sri Lanka. Additionally, for the betterment and development of the sect, the Supervisory Council is active, consisting of lay contributors. The three main elements of the denomination’s administration are the twenty-five-member Board of Trustees, the 110-member executive Committee and the 225-member Governing committee. Every decision taken by the sect must be approved by these councils to be implemented. Thus the functioning of the Rāmañña Mahā Nikāya, which has a very orderly administrative structure, is in accordance with the discoursed order. The current discussion was last revised in 2014 AD.

In the beginning the majority of monasteries of Rāmañña Nikāya were forest monasteries. Although many village temples have emerged in modern days, the forest tradition is still being continued by Sri Kalyani Yogāsrama samsthā of Rāmañña Nikāya which is the strictest forest tradition in Sri Lanka.

Though it has been impossible to resist completely, many old and simple traditions still survive in Rāmañña Nikāya. The monks of the Nikaya can be distinguished by the traditions such as using palm leaf umbrellas (goṭu Atta) and almsbowls (patta) and covering both shoulders while travelling (ubhayānsakaraṇaya). They wore robes that were dyed according to the traditional rules.

3. New Trends Due to Emergence of Saṅgha Sects (Nikāya)

Arguments

Sīmāsaṅkara-vāda

In the year 1850 AD, some monks raised doubts about the purity of the Sīma boundary where the Upasampadā Vinaya Kamma was performed by theAmarapura sect, andthe disciplinary judgment made about it became known as Sīmāsaṅkaravāda. Because of this, judgments Sīmālakkhaṇadīpanī, Sīmānaya- dappaṇa, Sīmālaṃkara-saṅgaha, Saṃkara-viniccaya, kumativibedha -viniccaya, Visugāma-sīmā-viniccaya, Vimaticchedanī, Baddha-sīmā-viniccaya, udakukkhepa-sīmā- viniccaya and sīmā-vinaccya ect. books were added in to the Pāli literature.

Pārupana-vāda

According to a decision of King Bodawpaya of Burma, it was decided that all monks should cover the shoulders wearing their robes. Accordingly, the monks of Rāmañña and Amarapura sects, who received the Upasampadā from Burma, used cloth robes by cover both shoulders. The debate between the Siam sect and the Rāmañña sect in the year 1888 is mentioned in history with the name Pārupanavāda. Most Venerable Hikkaduwe Sumangala Thero also covered the shoulders and accepted the preparation of the robes, so the monks belong to that sect also accepted it. In this connection, Venerable Kodagoda Gnanaloka Thero compiled the books, Pārupana-pāli and Pārupana-sikkhā, and Venerable Athuraliya Sumangala Thero also compiled a book called Purāṇa Pārupana Vata and Atipurāṇa Pārupana Vata. In addition, the books Sudacchada-vibhāvinī, pārupana-vata, vādārambhaka sangaha have been published.

Gotu-atta-vāda

Gotu-atta is one of requisites of austere disciplined monks. The use of it, which is a one-leaf umbrella (eka-patta-chatta), has also been recommended by the Buddha. At that time, except for the Siam and Amarapura sects, the monks of the Rāmañña sect used a one-leaf umbrella called gotu-atta. Some individuals tried to create an erroneous idea within the society, suggesting that this behavior was an act of indiscipline. The argument that arose to thwart that effort is the Gotu-atta argument. Apart from the above-mentioned debates, there are other debates such as Daḍagamuva-vāda, dussiladāna-vāda ro Karagampitiya-vāda, Vāsivāda or Karakæthi-vāda, Henaratgoda-vada or Balagalle- vāda, Aguruwælle-vāda, Ratmale-vāda, Nupe-vāda, Galle Kalegāna Abhinava vāda, Algiriya-vāda, and Kamburupitiya- vāda were conducted.

New books and their authors as a result of the literacy revival at lower country in Sri Lanka in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

 Conclusion

Pali literature also developed strongly as the new sect formed in Sri Lanka was born in association with the monks living in the southern coastal areas. This was attributed to the emergence of a group of new wealthy businessmen from the coastal areas of Southern Sri Lanka—their support was received for the spread of Buddhism. Due to the crisis over the Upasampadā, other sects besides the Siam sect came into being as solutions were sought with the help of local wealthy people. This emergence not only created a sect but also led to a remarkable development in the field of Pali language and literature. In the nineteenth century AD, most of the books related to Buddhism and the Pali language were written by the monks of the southern area. It seems that it led to the expansion and development of Buddhism.

REFERENCES (English)

• Hinuber, Oskar (2001) A Handbook of Pali Literature. New Delhi: Munshiran Manobarlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
• Malalgoda, (1976) Buddhism and Sinhalese Society 1750 – 1900, Berkeley. Ven. Saddhathissa, Hammalawa. Pali Literature of South - East Asia. Buddhhist CulturalCentre, Nedimale, Dehiwala.
• Mendis, G.C. The Chronicles of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Karunarathna and Sons
• Mendis, G.C. (1948) Ceylon Under the British, Second Revised Edition, Colombo.
• Mirando, A.H. (1985) Buddhism in Sri Lanka in the 17^th and 18^th Centuries, with Special Reference to Sinhalese Literary Sources. Dehiwala: Buddhist World Press, Tisara Prakasakayo

REFERENCES (Sinhala)

• Adikaram, W. (2003) Perani Lakdiwa Bauddha Ithihāsaya, Godage saha sahodarayo , M a r a d a n a Colombo 10.
• Adikari, Abayarathna. (1993) Sri Lankawe Sambhāwya Adhyāpanaya saha Mahasangana, Sridhara Prakasana, Kalapaluwawa
• Abhayasinha, M.P. (1999) Udarata Vitti, Sanskruthika Katayuthu Departhamenthuwa, Colombo.
• Abhayasundara, Praneeth; Edirisinha, (2009)

Amarapura Udāwa. Welithara     G n a n a w i m a l a

Nāhimi Anusmarana Padanama, Colombo 09.

• Dasanayaka, (2005) Edā Udarata. Godage saha sahodarayo, Maradana Colombo 10.
• Jayarathna, L.A.; Jayarathna, S.M. (2001) Pindapāthika Weliwita Saranankara Sangharaja Māhimipāno saha Syāma Warnanāwa. Karthru
• Rahula Himi, Walpola. (2008) Bhikshuwage Urumaya. Godage saha sahodarayo, Maradana Colombo
• Saddhammawansa Himi, (1950 Ambagahawatthe Indāsabhawara Gnānasāmi Mahanāyaka Swāmindra Charithaya. Sathmini kirula Muddranalaya, Kalutara.

* * *

Figure 1. Weliwita Sri Saranankara Thera.jpg. Unknown artist. Manuscrypts.com, accessed September 20, 2023, http://www.manuscrypts.com/wp- content/uploads/2010/09/ DSC03744.jpg

Figure 2. Most Venerable Walitota Sri Gnanawimalatisssa Maha Thera jpg. Circa      1806. Wikimedia                             Commons, scanned from Sri Lanka Amarapura Maha Sangha Sabawa- Gaurava Nama Pradanothsawaya, (1995) Magazine.

Figure 3. Ambagahawatte Saranankara Maha Thera, Founder of Sri Lanka Ramañña Nikaya, Alchetron, https:// alchetron.com/Ramanna-Nikaya

***

THE CONTRIBUTION OF FOREIGN SCHOLARS TO THE PROMOTION OF BUDDHIST CULTURE DURING THE NINETEENTH TO TWENTIETH CENTURIES

Dr. A. A. Ravindu Priyanka

BA, MA, PhD

Senior Lecturer Department of Pali & Buddhist Studies

University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. Whatsapp: +94-71-305-7031

http://www.hss.ruh.ac.lk/staff/Ravindu/8

F

Abstract

rom the sixteenth to twentieth centuries, there were three foreign invasions in Sri Lanka from the Portuguese, Dutch, and English. These three invasions paved the way for several disastrous consequences of the culture of the island. British rulers wanted a drastic change of Sri Lankan culture, and they did everything they could to condemn this culture and its peaceful societal environment. Hence, Buddhism and its culture of Sri Lankan society was drastically changed. Some Buddhists started Pali and philosophical studies of Buddhism to safeguard the traditional Buddhist culture in Ceylon. At this stage, three British civil servants who were appointed to Sri Lanka, George Turnour, R.D. Childers, and T.W. Rhys Davids took an immovable interest in the study of the Pali language and Buddhist culture of Sri Lanka. They introduced the significance of Pali language and Buddhist doctrine in English. This paper examines their strengths and points out the outstanding advantage that Sri Lankans and the Buddhist academics had during the British Colonial period of nineteenth to twentieth centuries. The qualitative research method is applied in this paper.

Introduction

From the sixteenth to twentieth centuries, there were three foreign invasions in Sri Lanka, the Portuguese, Dutch, and English. These three major foreign invasions caused several disastrous consequences of the culture of the island. British rulers wanted a drastic change of Sri Lankan culture. They condemned Buddhist culture and its peaceful societal environment. Hence, Buddhism and its culture of Sri Lankan society was drastically changed. Traditional Sinhala Buddhist society was threatened and collapsed to a considerable extent. There were anti- Buddhist activities and socio-religious movements. British rulers published many Christian books to condemn Buddhism and the culture of the island.

Some Buddhists started Pali and philosophical studies of Buddhism to protect the traditional Buddhist culture in Ceylon. At this stage, three British civil servants who were appointed to Sri Lanka, George Turnour, R.D. Childers, and T.W. Rhys Davids took an immovable interest in the study of Pali language and Buddhist culture of Sri Lanka. They introduced the significance of the Pali language and Buddhist doctrine in English. This paper examines the service rendered by these three British civil servants.

Research Problem

The problem of this research is “what is the contribution of foreign scholars for the promotion of Buddhism during the period of nineteenth to twentieth centuries in Sri Lanka?”

Research Method

The research method applied in this paper is the qualitative research method. Under that, a library survey was done. The information obtained from historical sources was identified and analyzed.

Research Objective and Limit

The research objective of this paper is to reveal the three British civil servants who were appointed to Sri Lanka, George Turnour, R.D. Childers, and T.W. Rhys Davids during the British Colonial period of nineteenth to twentieth centuries in Sri Lanka and to provide a proper understanding of the contemporary social and religious milieu of the aforesaid period.

Discussion

There were three foreign invasions from the sixteenth to twentieth centuries. They were the Portuguese, Dutch, and English. The year 1505 AD marked a remarkable turning point in the history of Sri Lanka. The arrival of Portuguese and their deliberate destruction of the culture of the island forced the Sinhalese to face severe battles to safeguard their nation and culture. The Portuguese ruled the country for 150 years (1505– 1658).

Just after this period, comes the Dutch administration period (1658–1796). Sinhalese again had to fight against socio- economic and cultural problems. During that unfortunate time of the Dutch administration, the invaders established the Roman- Dutch law ignoring traditional Sinhalese law.

The British colonial period commenced in 1796 and continued up to 1948. It is considered a period of despotism.

Traditional Sinhalese culture experienced severe obstacles with disastrous outcomes under the thumb of that despotic power. The total period of foreign yoke was 443 years. During this four and half centuries, Sinhala Buddhist people had to suffer in various ways. Every day, they had to experience calamitous incidents, such as mass killings in villages, genocidal attacks on innocent people, and cruel actions against Buddhist monks.

These three major foreign invasions paved the way for several catastrophic effects on the cultural aspects of the island. They changed the economy, land occupancy, and religion. They introduced Roman Catholicism along with the destruction of Buddhist and Hindu temples.

During the last five centuries of foreign yoke in Sri Lanka, Buddhists experienced hundreds of cruel attacks. Not only that, they experienced unpleasant responses from missionary activities. Buddhists organized Pali and philosophical studies of Buddhism to protect the traditional Buddhist culture in Sri Lanka. Luckily, there was a similar interest in Pali and Buddhist Studies among the well-known European intellectuals.

The British Civil Servants

At this juncture, three British civil servants posted to Sri Lanka, George Turnour (1799–1843), R. C. Childers (1838– 1876) and T. W. Rhys Davids (1843–1922) took an abiding interest in the language, religion, and culture of the island.

George Turnour (1799–1843)

George Turnour was born in Ceylon in 1799. His father, also with the same name, came to Ceylon in 1789 with the Seventy-third Regiment, and was appointed Fort Adjutant in Jaffna in 1795, after the capture of Jaffna from the Dutch. His son, George Turnour, was sent to England for his education. Eighteen-year-old Turnour was appointed to the Ceylon Civil Service and returned to Sri Lanka. When he was appointed as government agent at Ratnapura, he made the acquaintance of the high priest of Sabaragamuwa through whom he obtained a transcript of the commentary to the Mahavamsa, written in Pali and preserved at the Mulkirigala Vihara. Since there were no Pali dictionaries available, Turnour studied the Pali language, and together with some Buddhists monks, translated the text. After many years of labor he translated the first thirty-eight chapters of the Mahavamsa into English.

Turnour fell ill and retired from service. He left Ceylon in 1842 and died in Naples at the age of forty-four on April 10, 1843.

Robert Caesar Childers (1838–1876)

Robert Caesar Childers was born in 1838 in Cantley, South Yorkshire, England. He was the son of Reverend Charles Childers, an English chaplain in Nice, France. In 1857, nineteen- year-old Childers was awarded a Hebrew scholarship and admitted to Wadham College, Oxford. That was a great chance to study the Hebrew language. From 1860 to 1864, Childers was appointed the private secretary to the governor, Charles Justin MacCarthy. Secondly, he was appointed as office assistant to the government agent in Kandy.

During his time in Sri Lanka, he studied Sinhala and Pali with Venerable Yatramulle Sri

Dhammarama Thera at Bentota Vanavasa Vihara. He established a firm friendship with Venerable Waskaduwe Sri Subhuti Thera. In 1864, his time there ended when ill health forced him to retire from civil service and return to England. In 1866, he was appointed to be the secretary to the Cattle Plague Commission in London. In 1868, Childers continued his study of Pali under the influence of Reinhold Rost.

In 1869, he published the text of the Khuddaka Panha with an English translation and notes in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volume IV. This was the first Pali text ever printed in England. In 1871, he published an article, “Notes on Dhammapada, with Special Reference to the Question of Nirvaṇa” in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volume

1. In 1872, Viggo Fausböll dedicated the translation of ten Jataka stories with the acknowledgement that Childers’ “Kind exhortations caused me to renew my Pali studies.”¹

The first volume of his Pali dictionary was published in 1872. In the same year, he was appointed sub-librarian at the India Office under Reinhold Rost. In 1873, Childers became the first professor of Pali and Buddhist literature at University College, London. He published two articles in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volume VI, “Notes on the Sinhalese Language No. I – On the Formation of the Plural of Neuter Nouns” and “The Pali text of the Mahaparinibbana Sutta and Commentary with an English Translation.” “Buddhist Metaphysics” is the article that he published in Cowell’s edition of H. T. Colebrooke’s Essays.

In 1875, Childers published the second and concluding volume of the Pali Dictionary. The dictionary was awarded the Volney Prize by the Institut de France. He published in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volume VII, a further installment of the Mahaparinibbana Sutta and in Volume VIII two articles: “Notes on the Sinhalese Language No. 2: Proofs of the Sanskritic Origin of Sinhalese” and the concluding part of the Mahaparinibbana Sutta. Even though Childers selected ten discourses of the Digha Nikaya to translate, he was able to complete only seven discourses.

Childers died on July 25, 1876, survived by wife, two sons, and three daughters. If he had not died so prematurely at the age of thirty-eight years, what a magnificent contribution he could have made to Pali and Buddhist studies. But what he did during his all-too-brief-life is remarkable.

Thomas William Rhys Davids (1843–1922)

Thomas William Rhys Davids was born on May 12, 1843, in Colchester, the eldest son of a Welsh Congregational
minister. His mother died at the age of thirty-seven following

• Michael Viggo Fausbøl, Ten The Original Pali Text with a

childbirth. Rhys Davids was well educated in Latin at school. He studied Sanskrit under A.F. Stenzler, a distinguished scholar at the University of Breslau, Germany, deciding on the Civil Service as a career. When he was in Germany, he earned money by teaching English. He returned to England in 1863. He was posted to Ceylon, passing his civil service exams. As the Magistrate of Galle, a case was brought before Rhys Davids involving questions of ecclesiastical law. He first came across Pali when a document in a strange language was brought up as evidence. His training under Professor Strenzler was a proper route for him to turn his attention to Pali and Buddhist studies. While working at the Colonial Secretary’s office in Colombo, he was also expected to learn the Sinhala and Tamil languages. He quickly grasped these concepts with his philological background. His dedicated teacher for Pali and Buddhism was Yatramulle Unnanse (Venerable Yatramulle Sri Dhammarama) and his teaching was a source of stimulation and motivation for Rhys Davids.

In 1871, he was appointed the assistant government agent of Nuwarakalaviya, where the governor was Sir Hercules Robinson. The administrative center of Nuwarakalaviya was the ancient city of Anuradhapura. It is the city where we find hundreds of Buddhist monuments. Rhys Davids loved Anuradhapura and was so enthusiastic about having knowledge of Buddhism, the ancient culture of the city, and hidden stories of its ruins that he began to collect inscriptions and manuscripts. From 1870 to 1872 he wrote a series of articles for the Ceylon branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Journal about them. In this period, Rhys Davids learned the local language and engaged with the local population. From 1882 to 1904, Rhys Davids was professor of Pali at the University of London. He was elected to be the secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society. In 1905 he took up the Chair of Comparative Religion at the University of Manchester.

      Rhys Davids was the first scholar to introduce Pali Canonical

Translation and Notes, Palala Press, 2018.

Buddhism to Western academia. He was the founder of the Pali Text Society in 1881 in London which promoted the study of Pali Texts. It was the fulfilment of a long drawn-out need. Rhys Davids spent forty years preparing the Pali-English Dictionary. It was the great achievement of his life. It was an unlimited contribution for Buddhist academia and Pali philologists. After his death on December 27, 1922, his service was sustained by his wife, Caroline Augusta Foley Rhys Davids until her death in 1942.

Conclusion

During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Sri Lankan Buddhists experienced hundreds of ruthless attacks and horrible responses from foreign missionary activities. Hence, there arose a strong-minded Buddhist response to the foreign missionary challenge. Buddhist monks and well-known European scholars started the Pali and philosophical studies of Buddhism to safeguard the traditional Buddhist culture in Sri Lanka. Among the well-known European scholars there were three British civil servants, George Turnour, R. C. Childers, and T. W. Rhys Davids who are prominent.

These three British civil servants took an abiding interest in the language, religion, and culture of the island. They made their indefatigable efforts to introduce the wealth of Buddhist scholarship hitherto unknown to the West to the English- speaking world.

REFERENCES

• Blaze, E. “The Story of Lanka,” New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1921.
• Codrington, W. A Short History of Ceylon. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1926.
• Dewaraja, Lorna “Rhys Davids: His Contributions to Pali and Buddhist Studies,” an article in the Daily News, July 22, 1998, Sri Lanka.

• Dhammajoti, Reverend B. “Significance of the Service to Buddhist Scholarship Rendered by the British Scholar Professor Rhys Davids during the British Colonial Period.” Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Review, 3, Issue I, 2018.
• Fausbøll, Michael Viggo, Ten The Original Pali Text with a Translation and Notes. London & Copenhagen: printed by Louis Klein, 1872. Internet Archive, Open Library. Accessed September 4, 2023, https://openlibrary.org/search?q=.Ten+Jatakas.

+The+Original+Pali+Text+With+a+Translation

+and+Notes.&mode=everything.

• Rhys Davids, T.W. and Stede, William. “Foreword,” Pali English Dictionary, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Pvt. Ltd., 1989.
• Rhys Davids, T.W. ed. Journal of the Pali Text Society, London: Oxford University Press,
• ***

EVOLUTIONARY FACTORS AND CONTEMPORARY CULTURAL TRANSFORMATIONS OF TRADITIONAL BUDDHISM IN SRI LANKA DURING THE BRITISH COLONIAL PERIOD

Mr. Anuda Kanchana

Lecturer

Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies University of Ruhuna This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. 0719770612

T

Introduction

he British colonial period in Sri Lanka, lasting from

1815 to 1948, marked a significant turning point in

the country’s history. During this time, traditional Buddhism, which had been the dominant religion for centuries, underwent profound cultural transformations. This critical essay aims to explore the evolutionary factors that contributed to the cultural changes of Buddhism during the British colonial period in Sri Lanka and analyze their contemporary impact. The research helps in understanding the historical context of Sri Lanka during the British colonial period and the impact it had on Buddhism, providing insights into the dynamics of religious and cultural change. By examining the factors that influenced the cultural transformations of Buddhism, the research contributes to the preservation and appreciation of traditional Buddhist practices, teachings, and institutions. The study of these evolutionary factors helps in understanding the contemporary religious landscape in Sri Lanka, where the legacy of colonial influences and the revival of Buddhism continue to shape religious practices and identities. The research highlights the complex interplay between external influences, such as Christian missionary activities and Western education, and their impact on the traditional Buddhist traditions, offering a deeper understanding of the dynamics of religious traditions and their adaptation. By exploring the impact of British colonialism on Buddhism, the research provides insights into the sociocultural dynamics of Sri Lanka, including the interaction between different religious and ethnic communities and the tensions and transformations that have occurred. Overall, this research is crucial for comprehending the historical, cultural, and social dimensions of traditional Buddhism in Sri Lanka during the British colonial period and its contemporary implicate.

Historical Background

To understand the changes that occurred in Sri Lankan Buddhism during British colonialism, it is essential to examine the historical context. Prior to British rule, Buddhism had been deeply ingrained in the social, cultural, and political fabric of Sri Lanka. However, with the arrival of the British in the early nineteenth century, the island gradually became a British colony. The British administration, influenced by its own cultural, political, and economic agendas, sought to reshape the religious landscape of the country. Traditional Buddhism had held a dominant position in Sri Lanka for centuries before the British colonial period. However, during this time, the religion underwent profound cultural transformations influenced by external factors, such as British policies, Christian missionary activities, and modernization efforts. The research aims to explore the evolutionary factors that played a role in the cultural changes of Buddhism during the British colonial period. These factors include the influence of Christian missionaries, the introduction of Western education, the emergence of Buddhist revival movements, and the adaptation of Buddhism to colonial modernity.

Influence of Christian Missionaries

One of the primary evolutionary factors impacting traditional Buddhism in Sri Lanka was the arrival of Christian missionaries. The British, motivated by their evangelical zeal, actively promoted Christianity and established missionary schools and churches across the island. This led to a direct challenge to the dominance of Buddhism and created a competitive environment between the two religions. Buddhist institutions and leaders had to respond to these challenges and adapt to the changing dynamics. Christian missionaries arrived in Sri Lanka during the British colonial period and played a significant role in religious and cultural transformation (Bastin, R. 2004). The British administration actively promoted Christianity through the establishment of missionary schools and churches across the island, challenging the dominance of traditional Buddhism (Obeyesekere, G. 1966). The arrival of Christian missionaries created a competitive environment between Buddhism and Christianity, leading to a clash of religious ideologies and practices (Malalgoda, K. 1976). Christian missionaries established schools that emphasized Western education and Christian teachings, challenging the traditional Buddhist educational system centered around Pali and Sanskrit texts (De Silva, K. M. 2005). The influence of Christian missionaries in Sri Lanka during the British colonial period left a lasting impact on the religious and cultural landscape, shaping the religious beliefs and practices of the local population (Tambiah, S. J. 1986).

Western Education and Modernization

Another crucial factor that influenced the cultural transformations of Buddhism in Sri Lanka was the introduction of Western education and modernization efforts by the British. The British administration established English medium schools and introduced a new system of education that emphasized Western knowledge and values. This education system created a dichotomy between traditional Buddhist education, centered on Pali and Sanskrit texts, and the modern secular education offered in English. The adoption of Western education created a sense of cultural dislocation for Buddhists and led to a decline in traditional Buddhist scholarship. The British colonial period in Sri Lanka witnessed the introduction of Western education, which played a crucial role in the modernization of the country (De Silva, K. M. 2005). The British administration established English medium schools, which became a key vehicle for the dissemination of Western knowledge and values in Sri Lanka (Obeyesekere, G. 1966). The introduction of Western education resulted in a shift from traditional Buddhist education, centered around Pali and Sanskrit texts, to a more secular and modern educational system (Bastin, R. 2004). The adoption of Western education led to a decline in traditional Buddhist scholarship, as the focus shifted to subjects and knowledge systems associated with Western modernity (Gombrich, R. F. 1988). The introduction of Western education created a sense of cultural dislocation among Buddhists, as the traditional educational and knowledge systems associated with Buddhism were marginalized in favor of Western models (Malalgoda, K. 1976).

Buddhist Revival Movements

The challenges posed by Christian missionaries and the impact of Western education led to the emergence of Buddhist revival movements in Sri Lanka. These movements aimed to counter the perceived threats to Buddhism and sought to revive and preserve traditional Buddhist teachings, practices, and institutions. Leaders such as Anagarika Dharmapala played a crucial role in these movements, advocating for Buddhist nationalism and cultural preservation. The Buddhist revival movements contributed to the reaffirmation of Buddhist identity and the consolidation of Buddhist institutions. During the British colonial period in Sri Lanka, Buddhist revival movements emerged in response to the challenges posed by Christian missionaries and the impact of Western education. These movements aimed to revive and preserve traditional Buddhist teachings, practices, and institutions (Malalgoda, K. 1976). Anagarika Dharmapala, a prominent Buddhist leader, played a crucial role in the Buddhist revival movements during the British period. He advocated for Buddhist nationalism, cultural preservation, and the promotion of Buddhism both locally and internationally (Tambiah, S. J. 1986). The Buddhist revival movements sought to reaffirm Buddhist identity in the face of external influences. They aimed to restore the prominence of Buddhism and address the challenges posed by Christian missionary activities and Western modernization (Gombrich, R. F. 1988). The Buddhist revival movements in Sri Lanka during the British period were closely intertwined with nationalist ideals, as leaders emphasized the importance of preserving Buddhist heritage as an integral part of the island’s identity and history (De Silva, K. M. 2005). The Buddhist revival movements led to the consolidation and strengthening of Buddhist institutions, including temples, monastic orders, and educational centers, as part of efforts to revitalize and protect traditional Buddhist practices (Obeyesekere, G. 1966).

Colonial Modernity and Adaptation

The colonial period also witnessed the adaptation of Buddhism to fit into the framework of colonial modernity. Buddhist leaders, recognizing the need to engage with the changing socio-political landscape, attempted to reinterpret Buddhist teachings in a manner compatible with modern ideas and values. This adaptation aimed to reconcile traditional Buddhist teachings with concepts such as democracy, nationalism, and social justice. For example, Buddhist leaders advocated for the equality of all people, challenging the social hierarchies prevalent during colonial rule.

Impact on Buddhist Practices and Rituals

The cultural transformations during the British colonial period also had an impact on Buddhist practices and rituals. As Western values and ideas permeated Sri Lankan society, there was a gradual shift towards a more lay-oriented Buddhism. The emphasis on individualism and personal spirituality influenced Buddhist practices, leading to the growth of meditation centers and the promotion of mindfulness practices. Additionally, new forms of Buddhist rituals and ceremonies, influenced by Western liturgical practices, emerged during this period.

During the British colonial period in Sri Lanka, there was a gradual shift towards a more lay-oriented Buddhism. This shift was influenced by Western values and ideas that emphasized individualism and personal spirituality (Obeyesekere, G. 1966). Western influence and the emphasis on personal spirituality led to the growth of meditation centers in Sri Lanka. These centers promoted practices such as mindfulness and meditation, which were adopted by Buddhist practitioners seeking a more inward- focused approach to their religious practice (Gombrich, R. F. 1988). New forms of Buddhist rituals and ceremonies emerged during the British colonial period, influenced by Western liturgical practices. This integration of Western elements into Buddhist rituals reflected the changing cultural dynamics and the influence of colonial modernity (Malalgoda, K. 1976). Buddhism in Sri Lanka underwent adaptations to fit within the framework of colonial modernity. Buddhist leaders sought to reinterpret Buddhist teachings to align with modern ideas and values such as democracy, nationalism, and social justice, while still preserving key aspects of the tradition (De Silva, K. M. 2005). The influence of Western practices and modernization efforts resulted in the transformation of traditional Buddhist rituals and ceremonies. These changes reflected the evolving cultural landscape and the integration of external influences into Buddhist practices during the British colonial period (Tambiah, S. J. 1986).

Contemporary Implications

The cultural transformations of Buddhism during the British colonial period continue to have contemporary implications in Sri Lanka. The legacy of Christian missionary activities and the influence of Western education are still visible in the religious landscape of the country. The Buddhist revival movements, though successful in preserving and revitalizing traditional Buddhism, have also contributed to the politicization of Buddhism, leading to tensions between different religious and ethnic communities. The adaptation of Buddhism to colonial modernity has shaped the way Buddhism is understood and practiced in contemporary Sri Lanka.

Conclusion

The British colonial period in Sri Lanka brought about significant cultural transformations in traditional Buddhism. The influence of Christian missionaries, the introduction of Western education, and the subsequent emergence of Buddhist revival movements played vital roles in reshaping Buddhist practices, institutions, and identity. These changes continue to impact contemporary Sri Lankan society, highlighting the complex and evolving nature of religious traditions in the face of external influences. Understanding the evolutionary factors that shaped Buddhism during the British colonial period is crucial for comprehending the dynamics of religion and culture in Sri Lanka today.

REFERENCES

• Bastin, 2004. The Domain of Constant Excess: Plural Worship at the Munnesvaram Temples in Sri Lanka. New York: Berghahn Books.
• De Silva, K. M. 2005. A History of Sri Lanka. London: Penguin (Educa Books).
• Gombrich, R. F. 1988. Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge.
• Malalgoda, 1976. Buddhism in Sinhalese Society, 1750–1900, A Study of Religious  Revival                                                                          and Change. Berkeley: University of California Press, https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520324466
• Obeyesekere, 1966. “The Impact of the West on Religion and Society in Sri Lanka: With Special Reference to Buddhism.” Journal of Asian Studies.
• Tambiah, S. J. 1986. Sri Lanka: Ethnic Fratricide and the Dismantling of Democracy.  Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

***

THE BUDDHA BESIDE THE ROAD:

A NEW TREND OF BUDDHA IMAGE WORSHIP IN SRI LANKA

Professor Ven. Raluwe Padmasiri

BA, MA

Department of Buddhist Thought Postgraduate Institute of Pali & Buddhist Studies

University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

T

Introduction

he appearance of Buddha images in everyday settings has become a prominent religious trend in Sri Lanka since

the 1990s, giving rise to a fresh social discourse surrounding this phenomenon. The trend started when lay people began placing small Buddha statues under Bodhi trees at junctions, eventually leading to placing Buddha images of different sizes and designs at various intersections, particularly in urban and suburban areas. They are seen mostly near three-wheel parks and small marketplaces. Many types of personalities, from very poor citizens to politicians, seem to be involved in these projects. The size of the Buddha images range from two to five feet. While some of these images are abandoned within a short time, others seem to be maintained, protected, and worshipped carefully and with much devotion. Some of these constructions have caused ethnic and inter-religious conflicts in certain areas of the country. Comprehending this new trend can be quite challenging due to the abundance of academic methods and literature available on the subject.

Research Method and Limitations

Several sources were used to collect data for this project. Literature sources, academic related conversations, interviews done with directly and indirectly involved personalities, and with non-related observers for those projects are prominent. A number of programs conducted on this phenomenon via printed and electronic media also were taken into consideration in clarifying and comprehending the trend. Thus, this research method can be considered a combined method of both qualitative and quantitative. The study belongs to the field of exploring new human behavior in relation to religious symbols, specifically of Buddhists, in modern Sri Lanka.

1.      History of the Buddha Image and its Religious Significance

Several pieces of literary and archaeological evidence are well- known on the emergence and evolution of the Buddha image.² It is known that the first archaeological evidence of a Buddha statue was found in the first century AD on a coin believed to have belonged to King Kanishka of the Kushana clan.³ Discussion of Buddha images in the Theravada tradition becomes prominent at

• Buddhist texts like Kosalabimba Varnanā, Kālinga Bodhi Jātaka, Ekottarāgma, Samantapāsādikā, and Milinda Panha, and Records of Thranata.
• T. Basnayaka, 2002, Indiyawe Bauddha Kala Shilpa (in Sinhala), (Colombo 10: S. Godage & Brothers, 2002), 114.

a later time. Nonetheless, while many scholars on the subject of Buddha image record that it first originated in India,⁴ others still assume it originated in Sri Lanka.⁵

The Buddha image has evolved with unique characteristics at the hands of Sri Lankan artists throughout many centuries. It became a necessary component of worship for Sri Lankan Buddhists throughout its history and was located in a separate shrine room for worship. It became a sacred item that represents the Buddha, the first of the Triple Gem in Buddhism. In the Theravada tradition, it is regarded as one of three sacred items endorsed by the Buddha (uddesika cetiya: constructed for the Buddha). The image worship gradually evolved with numerous changes and finally it was brought out from its traditional sacred location to a mundane location. Thus, the Buddha image has become one of the popular religious symbols in almost all Buddhist houses in modern Sri Lanka. This indicates a modern development in the religious practices of Sri Lankan Buddhists. A considerable amount of literature has developed on this subject from different perspectives.

It is a known fact that a Buddha image was traditionally located at religious locations for worshipping. The sole purpose of the devotees in constructing and maintaining it was religious. It was not placed at mundane locations except in rare cases, such as at a royal palace or at the house of an artist.
Some scholars argue that the Buddha image was not promoted by the Sri Lankan Theravada tradition until Mahayana Buddhist influences become a considerable religious and cultural force. It had not been used by rulers as a symbol of power though cetiya was used for this purpose for some scholars. All these views suggest one significant point. The religious significance associated with the Buddha image in Sri Lankan history has

• de La Vallee Poussin, Wineent Smith, Ananda Coomaraswami, V. S. Agrawal hold this view.
• T. Devendra,     Nandadewa    Vijesekara,     Siri     Gunasinghe,     Ven. Kamburupitiye Wanaratana bear this opinion.

remained consistent and has not undergone the same alterations as other religious symbols.

Even though it is not possible to categorize the new trend of Buddha statutes in many public places as a distinct occurrence from its historical uses, a change becomes evident when considering the intent behind their placement. To understand this change, one has to carefully reflect on the purposes behind placing these statues. With a number of images placed in one particular location, the emotions of the contributors involved in creating the images, their socio-cultural backgrounds, the choice of colors used in the images, and the number of images situated in a specific location—all play a significant role. Regardless of the importance of providing an extensive description of all these elements, this article deliberately overlooks them to concentrate on the project’s key concept.

2.  Why Did This New Trend of Buddha Images Appear?

Providing a direct answer to this question is complex. It is not solely driven by the sacred and religious intentions that led to the creation of images in its historical context. It was found that different reasons led to the construction of different images. For instance, ten major reasons can be seen behind constructing ten public Buddha images. However, one cannot overlook the fundamental concern, which is the religious significance of all these images.
Determining the precise reasons for creating these images is challenging due to the complex picture. Some of the possible reasons that appear to have contributed to this emerging trend are discussed by Gananatha Obesekara⁶ (1971), and Dr. Soorakkulame Pemaratana⁷ (2021) and several other scholars who have discussed the major causes from two different points of views.

• Gananath Obesekara, “Religious Symbolism and Political Change in Ceylon,” Modern Ceylon Studies 1 (January 1970), 43–63.
• Soorakkulame Pemarathana, “Bringing the Buddha Closer: The Role of Venerating the Buddha in the Modernization of Buddhism in Sri Lanka,” accessed June 9, 2023, https://d- pitt.edu/31565/1/Pemarathana%20 Dissertation%20April%202017%20%2024%20Final_1.pdf

.

Irrespective of the different aspects shown above, one can observe that the key purpose of building all these statutes is for devotees to express respect for their religious master, in this case the Buddha. Typically, the manifestation of a devotee’s faith in their teacher emerges as a Buddha statue. Respect for the Buddha image in Sri Lankan Buddhist consciousness has prevailed for a thousand years. Whether this devotion is based on mere faith (amulikā saddhā), or well-reasoned confidence (ākāravati saddhā) is a point of debate. But the common religious consciousness of Buddhists is that constructing, maintaining, preserving, and paying respect to the Buddha image is a meritorious deed. It is a deep-rooted religious thought. Furthermore, this new trend of Buddha images can be seen as a mark of the remaking of traditional religious practices in the complex economic and socio-cultural context in which human beings have encountered numerous unanticipated challenges in modern society. The underlying reasons behind this new trend can be classified into two.

1. Collective objectives
2. Individual Objectives

i.  Collective Objectives

At this juncture, it is significant to investigate collective social, cultural, and religious purposes that caused a new culture of Buddha images in Sri Lanka to emerge. One of the obvious reasons behind this is the fear of losing one’s religious identity in a multi-religious context. In this context, the significance of Buddhist religious identity becomes paramount, considering that Buddhists have been the predominant religious community throughout the known history of the Sri Lankan society.

Human beings change the mode of expression of their cultural patterns when the existing pattern is challenged. They find new ways of expression. Fear of losing their Buddhist identity is one of the fundamental causes of this new trend. The profound emotional distress experienced by a devout Buddhists when the Bamian Buddha statues were destroyed by the Taliban, in clear disregard of established international heritage standards, archaeological treasures, and universally accepted moral principles, is far from being a straightforward matter. Buddhist identity was gradually dissolved in some of the recent Islamic states, such as Indonesia, within a short period of time. It is not uncommon that ordinary Buddhists feel a kind of fear of losing their religious identity in such circumstances. This uncertainty causes individuals to find fresh ways of preserving their religious identity. Buddhists have experienced this religious suppression globally and locally for a thousand years. Destruction of Nalanda Buddhist University in India by Muslim invaders, including M. Bhakhtiyar Khalji (thirteenth century AD), demolition of an entire Buddhist culture and heritage of ancient Polonnaruwa in Sri Lanka by Hindu invaders led by Kalinga Magha (thirteenth century AD), and invasion of the island by Portuguese, Dutch, and Englishmen for five hundred years are some of the well- known blows against Buddhists. Buddhists’ fear of losing their Buddhist identity is not groundless given these historical events and new global modern religious trends. Thus, a new trend of honoring Buddha images seems to have emerged in this kind of troubled context where one’s very identity survival is challenged by others.

Another reason for this trend is inter-religious competition in a multireligious society. Christians construct different religious symbols such as a cross, a statue of Mother Mary or other saints in the geographical areas where they are the dominant religious group, while Muslims built up enormous mosques in the areas where they live. Until recently, there were comparatively fewer Buddhist religious sites located within urban centers. Even the existing Buddhist temples in many cities are generally smaller in size compared to other places of worship. However, Buddhists are the dominant religious group of the country even though they are not dominant in all geographical locations. They may have felt that non-construction of religious symbols to represent their religious identity was a mark of losing their identity.. This thought of uncertainty and identity seems to have led to the development of a collective religious consciousness. Constructing and placing a Buddha image in a specifically chosen area becomes part of shared religious behavior.

Moreover, one significant reason people are compelled to seek and participate in such trends is the sudden unpredictability of their lives, economic downturns, and natural disasters such as tsunamis, landslides, and various other events. Certain research has illustrated that a sudden economic collapse in a country or nation can result in an increased level of religious devotion among its citizens. The growing participation in religious ceremonies and visits to sacred sites as a means to find inner peace has become a prevalent trend.

The tsunami in 2004 in Sri Lanka is one of the huge natural catastrophes Sri Lankans underwent. Loss of thousands of lives and destruction of public and private property gave cause to reflect on life in a different way. The emergence of the new trend of Buddha imagery appears to be linked to a combination of psychological challenges and the emotional impact of losing things in life as a result of this destruction. The number of Buddha images placed in cities and suburbs was less before this destruction. It was emphasized that Buddha images located in tsunami-hit areas were less damaged or not damaged in contrast to other buildings damaged in those areas. This belief has led some of the followers to build more statues in the city areas and suburbs. The occurrence of natural disasters has served as a dynamic factor influencing the psychological aspects of human religiosity. As a result, a sudden increase of Buddha images occurred within few years after the tsunami.

Similarly, the Buddha statue has appeared as a symbol of collectiveness of a small social group. Different types of social organizations can be seen behind the construction and maintenance of it. Members of small social units spend their time, labor, and money for this. It is not limited only to construction or maintenance of a material shrine or statue. They organize and perform religious activities around their construction. Rites and rituals are also properly conducted, fulfilling the group’s social responsibility. Associations like that of the three- wheeled-drivers is a good example of this. The statue becomes a symbol of keeping peace among competitive people of the same vocation.

On the other hand, a sense of protection also seems to function behind this new trend. The protection indicates a spiritual, social, and mythological safeguarding in this context. Locating and venerating Buddha images in armed camps, especially in war-torn areas in the north and east in Sri Lanka, is an example of this practice. The same is found in different sets of workplaces like garment factories. The location of the statue in such a context is significant as it builds up a connection between the individual and the statue. Some have claimed the image and interaction with it play a great role in releasing their disturbed emotions and providing consolation.

The trend is also driven equally by the desire to cultivate and strengthen social or political reputation using this powerful image. Buddha statues, like any other religious symbols, can easily capture the attention of the followers. For example, a group with notorious behavior may use this to alter their negative social image.

ii.   Individual Objectives

One’s personal and mundane objectives also seem to play a crucial role in constructing and maintaining a Buddha image in a public place. These objectives can be categorized into subgroups concerning the intention of the engagement. However, it is not easy to ignore or reject one’s genuine religious piety when contrasted with those who have hidden motives or intentions. While some individuals participate in these acts with pure religious motives, others use it to gain their mundane goals. Ordinary human behavior is often complex to define. Therefore, the possibility of having ulterior thoughts of nationalism, racism, or sometimes highly individual objectives

might be factors contributing to this specific action.

There are many stories behind the construction of a public Buddha image. Some are known; others are known only by a few people. Sometimes, the exact story behind an event is only known by close inhabitants. One such known case is that when an individual or particular group of people have found a risk or challenge for their business or housing due to a scheduled public project such as road or railway system, they place a Buddha image to stop that project.⁸ Instead of showing direct opposition for a public project, they use a religious symbol which is also a public figure creating a religious atmosphere. Since respect for the Buddha image becomes a part of followers’ religiousness, it can be used to easily convince others that removing such a public image as an act against Buddhism or Buddhist identity. Finally, the proposed public project is totally or somewhat disturbed and the Buddha image and piece of land dedicated to it become a kind of public property.

Numerous personalities use this new trend of Buddha images to gain various individual goals. Sometimes, an individual whose public character is damaged due to his past misbehavior may use the image as an instrument to reform his public image and forget his negative characteristics. They may engage in this project by providing financial support, labor, or providing leadership.

It is apparent that various factors, whether direct or indirect, open, or concealed, personal or communal, contribute to the emergence and continuation of this new trend in public Buddha imagery.

• “Certain scrupulous elements make use of these things for other personal For example, famous gossip regarding a major Buddha statue in Panadura town is that a businessman put up this statue to prevent his business places that were behind it from being demolished in road construction.” http:// lankapolity.blogspot.com/2010/06/sri-lanka-government-takes-control-of.html. Accessed September 9, 2023.

Most of the images explored and unexplored reveal different background reasons for their emergence. However, one cannot reject the availability of both positive human qualities and skills such as organized youth labor, expression of collective religious emotions artistically, along with negative aspects such as expressing one’s religious devotion in a way that undermines or criticizes others’ religious beliefs or identities. This complex picture of different characters with various motives and public conduct shows one important aspect of postcolonial modern Sri Lankan Buddhism.

3.  Socio-cultural Mechanism Bound with Public Buddha Image

Sri Lankan socio-cultural mechanism bound with the public Buddha image is an interested area to explore. Buddha images are generally created with the collective participation of social groups such as seniors, youths, and numerous social groups or organizations. Collective social thoughts are shared, and various social differences are temporarily reduced. Rich people, donors, and various other personalities of the area are bound together for one single project. It is seen that instructions from religious dignitaries, especially either chief incumbent of the temple of that particular area or one of monastic members are sought out by the organizers. Support of regional politicians is also gained for the success of the project. Prominent factors contribute to building the collective consciousness, while the sociocultural characteristics of these communities dictate the form, scale, and placement of the depicted image.

The constructions and artistic decorations around the proposed Buddha image depend on socio-cultural understanding, as well as the financial resources of the event planners. Decisions as to which direction the image should face, colors of the image, nature of sound instruments, and lighting systems to be installed are taken in accordance with the religious piety, understanding, ability to reach agreement, and the goals expected to be achieved by the group. Thus, the creation of a Buddha statue and placing it in a public atmosphere can be considered an interesting collective social act done based on common religiousness.

4.  Social Utility of a Public Buddha Image

Comprehension of how a public Buddha image is preserved, worshipped, respected, and cared for is also a significant aspect to be explored. Multifaceted ways of conduct are observed regarding the aspects mentioned above. The public Buddha images hurriedly created and located with much care are well- treated and venerated in certain places. Sometimes, a proper system of rituals to care and venerate the image are planned and shared by different followers according to their capacity and availability of time. Some groups enthusiastically work to maintain the maximum sacredness that they can uphold respecting the sacredness of the image. Thus, it is not difficult to find images that are carefully maintained and respected for generations. However, some images are abandoned carelessly within a short period of time. Those abandoned places seem to be misused for notorious antisocial acts. Serenity of the image also deteriorates naturally due to carelessness. It becomes a house for birds and insects. A well-cared-for Buddha image is abandoned by the second generation of a particular location for many reasons. Disagreement of the second generation with the founders of such an image or dislike of the second generation to continue projects commenced by previous generations are two known reasons for the abandonment of Buddha images in public places. Likewise, most of the public Buddha images established for a personal agenda are often abandoned.

A long-term healthy existence of a public Buddha image is determined by socio-religious consciousness and awareness of the people of a particular area. Buddhist leadership, attitude, strength, nature of youths, and collectiveness of different social organizations of the area decide the purity of the place and image, and the conduct, proper rites, and rituals.

A public Buddha image is a religious symbol in relation to which a civil and social power can be easily formed. However, any individual or group can create and place a Buddha image in a public place under certain conditions. Irrespective of the popularity it has gained, the recent trend of locating Buddha statues in non-religious and public domains is under heavy criticism for many reasons. The criticism is made against all related personalities, including monastic Buddhist leadership, reginal politicians, and artists.

5.  Symbolic Power of the Public Buddha Image

Any religious symbol can form a social power. The weight of the power is determined by factors such as the nature of the symbol, the purposes for which it is used, its location, its legal and social recognition, and the extent of its public engagement. The Buddha statue in Sri Lanka has gained an historically unique place. Its symbolical power and subtleness are enhanced by factors such as the majority of Sri Lankans being Buddhists, historical use of the statue to link faith and social relationships, its recognition as a living Buddha, a central role given to the image and image house of the monastery, and formulation and existence of an unbroken set of religious activities around the Buddha statue.

Human beings long for power. Irrespective of the limit of time and space, most of the religious symbols also function as symbols of power. The reappearance of Buddha images in different settings with a different shapes suggest the power of the social capital. In each and every society, social capital is shared and entertained individually and socially. Social capital is used to regain the social power that one loses due to a particular behavior in a specific time. To form and gain social power, one can use the Buddha statue in this context. The Buddha statue can play a central role in bonding religious leadership, public participation, regional political leaders, artists, devotees, and key figures of contemporary politics.

6.   Politics Bound with Symbolical Power of the Buddha Image

Jürgen Habermas in his political thought deeply investigates the relationship between religion and state.⁹ He uses two concepts, the private sphere and the public sphere, to highlight the point. The public sphere discusses how individual attitudes, ideas, and thoughts lead to a public act. For him, two factors led to the emergence and continuation of complex religious behavior. To protect one’s religious identity in the face of religious pluralists and cultural-pluralist trends. To attempt to maintain an unbroken religious identity with the trend of the secular state that started in the twentieth century.

Any religion in a multi-religious or multi-cultural country faces challenges to its existence. To preserve one’s religious identity one has to have material existence and authority in the material world, in addition to religious attitudes and thought. Religious identity and its strength are bound with materiality to some extent. It is evident now that locating Buddha images in many different places is linked to the psychological need of protecting one’s religious identity. Psychological needs are established in the material world.

Many religions are faced with the issue of existence within the formation of secular states separating the state from religion. Since the religion loses official power, it has to grapple with this separation and is forced to find ways and means for its independent survival.

Religions in Europe were successful in finding strong mechanisms for their existence. Religion successfully maintained the active participation of its followers in religious activities.¹⁰ However, at its beginning, when the official link

• Jürgen Habermas, ‘Religion in the Public Sphere, accessed August 9, 2023, http://www.sandiego.edu/pdf/pdf_library/habermaslecture031105_ pdf
• “Though there is statistical evidence of a wave of secularization in almost all European countries since the end of World War II – going hand

between religion and the state was abandoned, places of religious worship were reduced to a mere personal belief.

New secular states and national states with new development cleared the way for followers of all faiths to respect and tolerate the existence of religions. Respecting and bearing the existence of other religions became a legal duty of a citizen rather than an individual choice. This new secular setting made a huge impact on the religions which dominated a country, being the one and only faith. However, there is a difference between respecting another religion due to a legal obligation and doing so by individual understanding. For Habermas, epistemological transformation of the individual is necessary to arouse a non- conflicting thought of respect for other religions. A personality with such an intellectual transformation can comfortably accept the existence of different religions in a given country.¹¹ A hidden internal clash is a possibility in a context where one is legally bound to respect others but is not ready to do it internally. This theory can be used to understand the religious competition of installing religious symbols in public spheres.

One can argue that the above discourse cannot be applied to understanding the Sri Lankan trend of Buddha images since the island is not yet secular in its fullest sense. It is true that the Sri Lankan constitution admits its legal responsibility to protect and promote Buddhism which is the dominant and historically established religion of the country. However, the constitution has clearly admitted the right of other religions to exist in the island. It is well-known fact that all religions are equally treated

in hand with social modernization, in the United States all data show that the comparatively large proportion of the population made up of devout and religiously active citizens has remained the same over the last six decades.” P. Norris & R. Inglehart: Sacred and Secular, Religion and Politics Worldwide, (Cambridge, Cambridge UP, 2004), Ch.4). This was quoted in Jürgen Habermas “Religion in the Public Sphere” p.2. http://www.sandiego.edu/pdf/pdf_library/ habermaslecture031105_c939cceb2ab087bdfc6df291ec0fc3fa.pdf

• Jurgen Habermas, Religion in the Public Sphere, accessed September 8, 2023, http://www.sandiego.edu/pdf/pdf_library/habermaslecture031105_ pdf.

in all government policy making and distribution of justice. Sri Lankan Buddhists too had to face the challenge of secular administration and new issues caused by this trend of the secular state. The Sri Lankan Buddhist consciousness still believes that the nation’s historical roots are deeply tied to Buddhism and emphasize the need to give it highest priority. Recent religious challenges that have come into force locally and internationally have shaken Buddhists’ thought of peaceful existence. Feelings of insecurity have caused all to reflect on their existence. All these new religious trends create uneasy emotions regarding the coexistence of other religions, and it seems to have caused a new trend of Buddha images in public places.

Social Discourse on This New Trend

Mixed reactions are expressed on this new trend by different circles of society. Sri Lankan Buddhists too, review it with different perspectives. Reactions of Buddhists on this new

trend are made based on concerns such as the location of the image, social figure of contributors and their social conduct, quality and shape of the image, the ways and means of paying respect to the image, and their understanding of global cultures. Some reactions seem to show differences, depending on their relationship to the image. Considerably different views are seen when the reactions of contributors to the project, nearby dwellers, and those who live far away are carefully analyzed. Some highly appreciate the project while others vehemently criticize it. However, the neutral audience is much higher than promoters or denouncers of the project in general.

The opinions of non-Buddhists offer vivid and diverse expressions, similar to the reactions mentioned earlier. A large number of non-Buddhists oppose this practice in certain geographical areas, and it is not difficult to comprehend the reasons behind this uneasiness. However, we found that many of the Buddhists and non-Buddhists had joined forces to install and safeguard public Buddha images in certain city areas.

It is not hard to grasp why conflicts have arisen over public Buddha images in the northern and eastern regions of the country. This is largely due to a strong ideological clash between the northern and southern parts of the country, both before and after defeat of LTTE terrorism. The popular accusation made against all installments of Buddha statues in northern and eastern parts of the country is that the image is used to dominate Tamils in those areas. For them, it is a symbol of “Sinhalization” of Tamil areas.¹² They are a suspicious of any Buddhist monument that is constructed in those areas. Some of the Tamil fundamentalists seem to believe that all sorts of Buddhist religious activities occurred in the north and east as part of the big project that they call Sinhalization.¹³ Nonetheless, all Tamil inhabitants do not share the same opinion.¹⁴ Reactions of the Muslims in Muslim- dominated areas take different shapes and they also have voiced different opinions. However, placing certain images in particular areas has caused ethnic clashes among the followers of different faiths.¹⁵

Opinions of foreign visitors also were observed and many of them seem to appreciate it as a specific mark of Buddhist devotion. However, mixed reactions to this practice were also found. Many of the social anthropologists seem to consider this phenomenon a recent practice and something leading to inter- religious differences.

7.  A Buddhist Analysis on this New Phenomenon

Construction of Buddha images and veneration of them belong to Buddhist rituals rather than direct spiritual practice on the doctrine. However, it is incorrect to devalue the possible

• Thangavelu, “Buddha’s Statues: Symbol of Sinhalese Hegemony,” accessed July 9, 2023, http://tamilnation.co/index.htm
• “Sri Lanka After the Civil War: Interview with Muttukrishna Sivananthan Sergei DeSilva Ranasinghe at http://transcurrents.com/tc/2010/11/ sri_lanka_after_the_civil_war.html, accessed July 9, 2023.
• Janaka Perera, “Mass protest to protect Buddha statue,” Janaka Perera, at http://www.asiantribune.com, accessed July 9, 2023.

wholesome intention behind these acts. To understand the exact Buddhist doctrinal position on this practice, one needs to investigate the relationship of this practice with one’s spiritual progress or recognized Buddhist path. One could explore internal wholesomeness or unwholesomeness of all activities organized around this practice in accordance with dhamma and Vinaya. It enables one to comprehend the Buddhistic values of intentions and outcomes of all related activities.

Some recent Buddhist scholars have shown how these sorts of activities are non-contradictory with fundamental teachings of Buddhism and how they are supportive for one’s spiritual progress.¹⁶ However, a possible doctrinal position on the recent phenomenon of constructing Buddha images in public places— going beyond its traditional use, should be examined in detail. Different approaches could be utilized to achieve this goal. Instead of examining the mere presence of Buddha images in public places, one needs to explore the background reasons for their appearance. This includes group consciousness, the way contributors engage, the said and unsaid psychology of the engaged persons, the change of peoples’ conduct in the area, both before and after the establishment of the image, short-term and long-term social impact made by this project, non-Buddhists’ attitudes about it, its relationship in building up inter-religious harmony of the area, and goals achieved by the contributors.

The points highlighted above depict some of the specific aspects one should be concerned with before jumping to narrow and judgmental conclusions on the appearance and maintenance of any new religious trend within any religious context. In addition to these perspectives, one could further investigate the role of such activities in one’s ethical life, its possible impact on the continuation of Buddhist culture, and the sense of belonging formed by a public Buddhist image. Such investigation would show the difficulty of finding an exact Buddhist position on such new trends. One’s deep insight is useful in understanding

 

• Wanaratana Thera, , Lakdiwa Budu Pilimaya (Sinhala), 1985.

this public behavior. However, making easy general conclusions on all public Buddha images just by surface level observation cannot reveal the real picture of the aspects of this new trend.

Conclusion

This article examined a contemporary Buddhist phenomenon in Sri Lanka. Its focus was to examine why the Buddha image, which had been placed in strictly restricted sacred monastic premises, was brought out of that context, and placed in mundane public locations after the mid-twentieth century in Sri Lanka. A combined research method was used for the study with individual, cultural, religious, economic, and many other causes and factors behind this phenomenon were investigated. The mechanism of establishing a Buddha image at a public place was explored focusing attention on the intention of the contributors, the collective nature of the project, and other aspects. Instead of making a hasty conclusion on this new trend, this article reminds us of the need to conduct careful research on the subject. Those who are really interested in revealing and comprehending the realistic picture of this trend have to examine how the history, culture, politics, motives, collective consciousness, new global trends of religions, and one’s desire to promote and continue one’s religious identity function in this new phenomenon.

REFERENCES

• Basnayaka, A.T. Indiyawe Bauddha Kala Shilpa (in Sinhala), Colombo: Godage and Brothers, 2002.
• Chattopadyaya, and Chimpa, Lama. Taranatha’s History of Buddhism in India. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishing House, 2010.
• Coomaraswami, Buddhist Art. Whitefish:

Kessinger Publishing, 2005.

• Obesekara, Gananath, “Religious Symbolism and Political Change in Ceylon,” Modern Ceylon Studies 1 (January 1970): 43-63. 2018.

• Piyadassit, Thera and Gunasekara, C. eds. Kosalabimba Varnanā, 2002. Warakapola: Sooriya Publishers, 2002.
• Wanaratana Thera, Lakdiwa Budu Pilimaya (Sinhala), Maradana: Godage International Publishers, 1985.

Websites

• Chalmers, Robert, The Jataka Tales, Vol. 1–6. UK: Cambridge University Press, 1895. Available in the Wisdom Library, accessed June 9, 2023, https://www. wisdomlib.org/buddhism/book/jataka-tales-english/d/ doc80653.html
• Habermas, Jürgen. ‘Religion in the Public Sphere,” University of San Diego, Accessed August

9, 2023,          http://www.sandiego.edu/pdf/pdf_library/ habermaslecture031105_c939cceb2ab087bd fc6df291ec0fc3fa.pdf

• Pemarathana, Soorakkulame (2017). “Bringing the Buddha Closer: The Role of Venerating  the   Buddha in the Modernization of Buddhism in Sri ” Doctoral Dissertation, Unpublished. 2017, accessed June 9, 2023, https://d- scholarship.pitt.edu/31565/1/ Pemarathana%20Dissertation%20April%202017%20

%2024%20Final_1.pdf

• Perera, “Mass protest to protect Buddha statue,” Asian Tribune, accessed July 9, 2023. http://www. asiantribune.com
• Ranasinghe, de Silva. “Sri Lanka After the Civil War: Interview with Dr. Muttukrishna S a r v a n a n t h a n , ” accessed July 9, 2023. http://transcurrents.com/ tc/2010/11/sri_lanka_after_the_civil_war.html
• Thangavelu, , “Buddha’s Statues: Symbol of Sinhalese Hegemony,” accessed July 9, 2023, http://tamilnation. co/index.htm

• Lankapolity Blogspot, accessed September 9, 2023, http://lankapolity.blogspot.com/2010/06/sri-

lanka-government-takes-control-of.html

***

THE CONTRIBUTION OF SRI LANKAN SCHOLARS TO THE PROMOTION OF BUDDHISM AND THE PALI LANGUAGE DURING THE PERIOD OF THE NINETEENTH TO TWENTIETH CENTURIES

Reverend O.U. Dhammadheera

Lecturer

Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies University of Ruhuna

Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. 0719388134

T

Introduction

he nineteenth and twentieth centuries witnessed a resurgence of interest in Buddhism and the Pali language

in Sri Lanka. During this period, Sri Lankan scholars made significant contributions to the promotion and preservation of Buddhism, as well as the study and propagation of the Pali language. This critical essay aims to explore the contributions of Sri Lankan scholars during the nineteenth to twentieth centuries and analyze their impact on the revitalization and dissemination of Buddhism and Pali studies.

Historical Context

To understand the contributions of Sri Lankan scholars during this period, it is crucial to examine the historical context. The nineteenth century marked a period of colonial rule in Sri Lanka, with the island under British control. This era brought challenges to the traditional Buddhist institutions and practices, leading to a renewed emphasis on preserving and promoting Buddhism.

King Kirti Sri Rajasinha, whose reign was one of the most fruitful for the cause of Buddhism, was succeeded by his brother, Rajadhi Rajasinha. His nephew, Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, was the next and last king of Sri Lanka. During the reign of Rajadhi Rajasinha in 1796, Sir Frederick North was sent as the first British governor after the Dutch were defeated in battle and surrendered their territories to the British colony. The British occupied the low country of Lanka in 1796 and the Kandyan territories in 1815. These territories remained in their hands until 1948, when Sri Lanka regained her independence.

Missionary education was started with the establishment of schools in Sri Lanka in 1886. Other than that, the Christianization was spread out by distributing books and pamphlets which criticized the Buddhist religion and sang the praises of Christianity. The missionaries themselves studied Buddhism, Buddhist literature, and the Sinhalese language to attack the Buddhist religion and extolling the virtues of Christianity in Sinhala.

Pioneering Scholars

Numerous Sri Lankan scholars emerged as key figures in the promotion of Buddhism and the Pali language. Anagarika Dharmapala, a prominent Buddhist revivalist, played a vital role in advocating for Buddhist nationalism and the preservation of Buddhist teachings. He was born in 1864, the son of Don Carolis Hewawitharana and Mallika Hewawitharana. After schooling in missionary schools, he started his career as a government clerk. At the age of nineteen, he became a member of the Theosophical Society and later he resigned from his government job and became the translator for the society. Later, he held the positions of general secretary of the Buddhist section of the Theosophical Society, manager of the Buddhist press and Sarasawi Sadaresa newspaper, Buddhist school manager, and assistant secretary of the Buddhist security committee. He was the first messenger from Sri Lanka sent to Japan for promoting Buddhism. At the Buddhist congress held there, Dharmapala displayed the Buddhist flag for the first time in an eastern country.

His efforts included establishing Buddhist schools, promoting Buddhist literature, and founding organizations such as the Maha Bodhi Society. As a result, Buddhism was spread globally and happened many important incidents including the restoration of Buddhist control of Bodhgaya, India.

At the last period of life, he became a monk with the name, Venerable Siri Devamittha Dharmapala. He passed away on April 29, 1933, in India.

Most Venerable Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thero

Venerable Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala was born as the fifth child of Don Johanis Silva Abeyweera Gunawardhana in 1826. He became a monk under Venerable Melegoda Gunaratana Mahathera in1840, at the age of fourteen at Vijayaba Pirivena, Totagamuwa. After pirivena education, Venerable Sumangala received the higher ordination by composing two books.

Sumangala Thero served as a teacher in Paramadhammacetiya Pirivena in Ratmalana and Paramananda Viharaya in Kotahena. Again, he founded a school in Sudarshana Paramananda Viharaya in Galle and Vidyodaya Pirivena in Colombo, which is the prominent Piriwena in Sri Lanka.

Veneable Sumangala Thera played a pivotal role in promoting Buddhism and Pali language and literature. He established new academic institutions, secured financial support from foreign nations such as Thailand for Buddhist publications, and shared dhamma knowledge with many local and foreign students, especially through Vidyodaya Piriwena. He disseminated thousands of books and magazines that focused on the adverse consequences of anti-Buddhist activities that occurred during the colonial era.

He translated Balavatara Subodhika Tika and compiled one part of Mahawansa, together with Pandith Batuwantudawe, and translated it into Sinhala.

Most Venerable Hikkaduwe Sumangala Thero passed away on April 21, 1911.

Most Venerable Waskaduwe Sri Subhuti

Most Venerable Waskaduwe Subhuti was a son of Karunamuni Panis de Silva and Punchihami Neelamani who lived in Waskaduwa, Western Province. As he was a bright student, in his childhood his parents offered him to Ven. Saranapala Seelakkhandha Thera, the Chief Incumbent of Sumanarama Maha Viharaya, Kalamulla. He became ordained and was given the name, Waskaduwe Subhuti. After completing his education, Subhuti Thera stayed at Deepaduttaramaya, Kotahena and helped Mohottiwatthe Gunananda Thera and helped him for three years prepare for the debates.

At the age of twenty-two, Subhuthi Thera received Upasampada and started literary services by publishing Abhidhanappadeepika with English and Sinhala translations. His greatest work is the Namamala, a book of grammar crafted in 1876 with the aim of delighting both national and international scholars. He also compiled Siyam Paritta Book for the benefit of Thai Buddhists.

Prince Siyam also became a monk and received higher ordination while exploring the specialty of Subhuthi Thera. He was well-known as a dhamma preacher, Pali scholar, great writer, book compiler, translator, philosopher, and a great thinker. He passed away on April 15, 1917, at Waskaduwa at the age of eighty-two.

Most Venerable Ratmalane Dhammaloka Thero

He was born in May 28, 1828, at Ratmalana. Raigama Vidanalage Don Cornelis Appuhami and Ambepitiyage Dona Adriyana were his parents. As he was a clever and intelligent boy, he was ordained under the guidance of Sobhita and Sonuttara Mahatheras in 1837 and was named Rathmalane Dharmarama. After ordination, he was sent to Kotte Rajamaha Vihara, which was the only Buddhist school in Colombo at that time, for his education. Later, he studied at various institutions and successfully finished his education.

After higher ordination, he started an educational institute in his temple in Ratmalana and was able to assemble a group of knowledgeable individuals, including Symon de Silva Senewirathne. Among his accomplished disciples, the eminent Most Venerable Ratmalane Dhammarama stands out as his greatest student. Most Ven. Rathmalane Dhammaloka Thera is the founder of Vidyalankara Pirivena, which is the one of most valuable pirivena in Sri Lanka.

He not only played a significant role in compiling numerous books but also took the initiative to start the Satyasamuccaya magazine, a prominent Buddhist publication during the colonial era. He personally compiled works such as “Rajacarita” in Sanskrit, “Vinaya Katikawata,” and “Satyavilasini,” and even reprinted the “Dharmapradeepika.”

Venerable Ratmalane Dhammaloka Thera passed away on August 15 in 1887.

The Most Venerable Ratmalane Dharmarama Thero

The Most Venerable Ratmalane Dharmarama   Thero, who served as the Principal of Vidyalankara Pirivena and transformed it into a globally renowned institution, was the child of Alexander Weerasinghe Appuhami and Dona Isabela de Alvis Siriwardhana Hamine. Due to his remarkable aptitude for learning, he entered the monastic life at the age of seven under the guidance of Kahathuduwe Chandajoti Nayaka Thera. Subsequently, he underwent another ordination ceremony led by Ven. Ratmalane Dhammaloka Thera, taking the name Ratmalane Dharmarama. His exceptional memory allowed him to memorize fifty-sixty stanzas in a single day.

The highly respected Ratmalane Dharmarama Thero consistently assisted his teacher, Dhammaloka Thero, in the completion of academic projects and in the establishment of Vidyalankara Pirivena. Additionally, Dharmarama Thera accomplished numerous literary endeavors. He rewrote Janakiharana Maha Kavya written by Maha Kavi Kumaradasa based on Purana Sinhala Sannaya and published it in 1890, even though the original text had been lost.

He unveiled the true impact of Sinhala spelling, clearing up previous confusion.

Editions of Commentaries:

• The first half of Papanchasudani Commentary
• Text commentaries such as Manorathapurani
• Atthasalini
• Majkdhima Nikaya
• Dhammasangani Pali grammar books:
• Balavatara
• Maharupasidhi
• Pali Namakhyata Padamala Other:

• Mahabodhivansa texts with commentaries, Kavyasekharaya
• Sinhala Sandesa books

He held various debates such as the Buddhavarsha argument, Parupanavada, and Sugathviatvada and resolved and presented the confusions in those ideologies.

After completing these services, Most Venerable Ratmalane Dharmarama Thera passed away on May 3, 1918.

There are many other notable scholars including Walpola Rahula Thera, Piyadassi Maha Thera, and Soma Thera who made significant contributions to Buddhist scholarship and the dissemination of Pali literature.

Revival of Buddhist Education

During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, there was a resurgence of interest in Buddhist education in Sri Lanka. Sri Lankan scholars were at the forefront of establishing Buddhist schools and educational institutions that focused on teaching Buddhist principles, practices, and the Pali language. The revival of Buddhist education aimed to preserve Buddhist knowledge and instill Buddhist values in the younger generation.

Translation and Publication of Buddhist Texts

Sri Lankan scholars played a pivotal role in the translation and publication of Buddhist texts into local languages. They worked tirelessly to make Buddhist literature accessible to a wider audience, enabling the dissemination of Buddhist teachings and values. This effort contributed to the preservation and propagation of Buddhism within Sri Lanka and beyond.

Influence on Pali Studies

Sri Lankan scholars significantly impacted the field of Pali studies. They conducted extensive research, produced scholarly works, and taught Pali language and literature. Their contributions enriched the understanding of Pali texts, facilitating a deeper exploration of Buddhist philosophy, ethics, and scriptures. Their efforts helped establish Sri Lanka as a prominent center for Pali studies.

Contemporary Implications

The contributions of Sri Lankan scholars during the nineteenth to twentieth centuries continue to have contemporary implications. The revival and promotion of Buddhism, along with the preservation of the Pali language, have strengthened Buddhist identity, fostered religious literacy, and contributed to the development of Buddhist institutions and practices in Sri Lanka. The scholarly works of these individuals serve as important resources for contemporary scholars and practitioners.

Conclusion

The contributions of Sri Lankan scholars during the nineteenth to twentieth centuries played a pivotal role in the promotion of Buddhism and the Pali language. Through their efforts, Buddhism was revitalized, Buddhist education was revived, and the Pali language became a focal point of scholarly research. The impact of their work is evident in the continued vitality of Buddhism in Sri Lanka today. By preserving and disseminating Buddhist teachings and knowledge, these scholars have left a lasting legacy and enriched our understanding of Buddhism and the Pali language.

REFERENCES

• Dharmapala, A Return to Righteousness: A Collection of Speeches, Essays, and Letters of the Anagarika Dharmapala. Ceylon: Buddhist Publication Society, 1999.
• Gombrich, F. Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern C o l o m b o . Oxfordshire: Routledge, 1988.
• Malalasekera, P. Pali Literature of Ceylon. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1973.

• Rahula, Walpola. History of Buddhism in Ceylon: The Anuradhapura Period, 3rd Century BC-10th Century AD. Colombo: D. Gunasena & Company, 1974.
• Tambiah, J. Sri Lanka: Ethnic Fratricide and the Dismantling of Democracy. Chicago:  University of Chicago Press, 1986.
• ***

DEVELOPING THE BHIKKHUNI SASANA IN MODERN SRI LANKAN SOCIETY

Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda.

Abbess of Sakyadhita Training and Meditation Center Email: VThis email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

T

Summary

hroughout the history of Buddhism, there have been four assemblies of the Buddha’s disciples, and the Bhikkhuni community is one of those. Unfortunately, in Sri Lanka, the Bhikkhuni assembly disappeared for nearly one thousand years. In the last decade of the twentieth century, with the loving- kindness and support of the Mahātherā, the Bhikkhuni assembly

was restored.

Introduction

Over twenty-six centuries ago, there was a Prince who abandoned his luxurious lifestyle, his wife and infant to search for the truth. Prince Siddhartha renounced the world to search for a way to happiness, not only for himself but for all human beings. When Prince Siddhartha renounced the lay life and went forth to seek the truth, Princess Yasodara, his consort, was living in the palace but was practicing a hermit’s life as followed by her husband—wearing rough clothes, eating one meal a day, and sleeping on the ground. Although the king and queen (Prince Siddhartha’s parents) advised her with compassion not to continue, Princess Yasodara did not stop the practice of an ascetic life.

The Buddha came back to Kapilavatthu (his hometown) seven years from the day he as Prince Siddhattha left the palace. During his visit, his mother Queen Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī requested permission for females to ordain from the Buddha. He refused and only on the third occasion did he grant permission for females to become Bhikkhunis. The state of society at that time was not conducive for females to practice a nun’s life, and for that reason, the Buddha did not accept what was implored by Queen Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī.

The Bhikkhuni Sāsana Begins

Even though the request was rejected, Queen Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī and five hundred princesses and many Sakyan ladies followed the Buddha, barefooted, to Vesāli. Eventually, Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī became a nun by accepting eight specific rules to be respected (aṭṭḥa garu dhamma). “Sace, Ānada, Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī ime aṭṭḥa garudhamme paṭiggaṇhāti, sā v’assā hontu upasampadā ti.” and her Sākyan followers were subsequently given ordination by the Bhikkhu Saṅgha. They were allowed by the Buddha to lead a homeless life, practicing the holy life, in recognition of their potential to attain the highest goal set forth by the Buddha’s teaching, arahantship, which they all eventually attained.

The Bhikkhuni Sāsana Arrives in Sri Lanka

Following this historical event, the Bhikkhuni order was brought to Sri Lanka by Saṅghamitta Mahātheri, the daughter of the Indian king, Aśoka Maurya, in the third century BCE. Her

journey was in order to facilitate the ordination of Anulādevi the queen of Sri Lanka, along with many other princesses who became nuns. From Sri Lanka, the Bhikkhuni order spread to China in the early fifth century from Sri Lanka. After its establishment in China, the nun’s Saṅgha was propagated elsewhere in East Asia, including Korea, and later Taiwan

Unfortunately, in the early eleventh century, both the Bhikkhu and Bhikkhuni order disappeared from Sri Lanka due to famines, harsh environmental factors, and the spread of diseases. In the nineteenth century, a woman (1885–1937) who was born to a wealthy Christian family wanted to practice the holy life following Buddhism, but there was no one who could instruct her. In this challenging situation, she bravely decided to go to Myanmar to become a nun under the Myanmar tradition, which means a nun can only observe ten precepts (dasasīlamata). Her monastic name was Sudhammacari. After becoming a nun, she came back to Sri Lanka (1903) and then founded the Lady Blake Nunnery which was newly established at Katukele (Kandy). As a result of this, there were many women who became Buddhist nuns in Sri Lanka and practiced the monastic life as dasasīlamatas.

There were many nuns thereafter who observed ten precepts but they had not completely become Bhikkhunis. At the end of the twentieth century, the Buddha’s disciples only had three assemblies: this is the same as an elephant that lacks one leg. The Saṅgha still continued to exist but it was not complete because of the absence of a Bhikkhuni assembly.

Although the Bhikkhus at early stages opposed the establishment of a Bhikkhuni order, some mahātherās and Bhikkhus who realized that the Sasana is incomplete without the four assemblies, came to a decision to restore the Bhikkhuni assembly and consequently ceremonies for Bhikkhuni Upasampadā took place at Bodhgaya and Sarnath in 1996 and 1998. Following the success of these events, at present in Sri Lanka, there are many Bhikkhunis who have completed

Upasampadā and are practicing a monastic life.

The Development of the Bhikkhuni Assembly and Contribution of Bhikkhunis to Modern Society in Sri Lanka

While developing the Bhikkhuni assembly we should know about the favorable and difficult conditions from the beginning of restoration of the Bhikkhuni order in Sri Lanka until now.

Beginning with the assistance of many Bhikkhus who were the first to help establish the Bhikkhuni assembly after one thousand years, they also have the obligation to assist in the training of dhamma and Vinaya for the first Bhikkhuni generation. After receiving education from them, the new Bhikkhunis can understand and have a strong foundation to carry out the monastic life independently according to dhamma and Vinaya of the Blessed One.

There is no state patronage for the Bhikkhunis or recognition from society for the mainstream Bhikkhu temples and monasteries. Bhikkhuni’s temples, as well as their food, medicine, and other needs are provided by alms and donations of lay people, mostly from the local village or the town they live in. The Bhikkhunis in these monasteries survive with this support and lead a very hard life.

The Bhikkhuni assembly faces many difficulties and struggles. Bhikkhuni monasteries are very few because the order is new and does not have the patronage of the Bhikkhu temples. Therefore, they need help from many parts of society. Further, young females of today do not have much incentive for going forth into homelessness because modern society offers them many mundane pleasures such as social media, the internet. and spiritual growth is not encouraged. It is mostly elderly females who enter into the order and consequently, there is little dynamic and energetic growth in the Bhikkhuni order. Thus the number of nuns is increasing very slowly.

Additionally, many Bhikkhus do not recognize and oppose the restoration of the Bhikkhuni assembly because they hold that

only the Buddha can establish a Bhikkhuni order and that without the Buddha there is no one who can establish a new lineage. Moreover, the government does not accept the Bhikkhuni order and they recognize Bhikkhunis only as “Dasasīlamatas,” Sri Lankan nuns observing ten precepts. Another major deterrent is that official ID cards are not issued by the government for Bhikkunis and therefore young nuns cannot sit for exams, travel, and so on. Consequently, the new lineage of Sri Lankan Bhikkhunis faces many difficulties and obstacles, both in acceptance and patronage.

Overcoming hindrances, the new lineage bravely endures and continues. They persist in learning the Buddha’s teaching to perfect themselves and attain liberation. Not only benefiting themselves to overcome suffering but also helping people, both mundane and spiritual, to the best of their abilities. In that effort, many training nuns are practicing the monastic life learning about the dhamma and Vinaya after which they receive the higher ordination (Upasampadā) to become Bhikkhunis. Every year the ceremony of higher ordination takes place, not only for Sri Lankan nuns, but also for foreign Bhikkhunis from Bangladesh, Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam.

In addition, senior Bhikkhunis go to other countries to organize Upasampadā ceremonies for nuns to become Bhikkhunis following the Theravāda tradition of Sri Lanka. They (who light the fire for females who wish to live following the dhamma and Vinaya of the Blessed One) are striving to maintain the development of Bhikkhuni Sasana.

According to the Buddha’s words, females can follow the entire discipline and practice the holy life and attain the perfection of life that is the four levels of Buddha’s teaching; Sotāpanna (stream-enterer), Sakadāgāmi (once-returner) Anāgāmi (non- return) and Arahant.

Theravāda Bhikkhunis have a close relationship with other Bhikkhunis around the world with American, Australian, Bangladesh, Europe, Indonesian, Thailand, and Vietnamese

Bhikkhuni assemblies. They connect and exchange experiences for developing the Bhikkhuni Sasana following the Buddha’s teaching.

Bhikkhunis not only live in monasteries and practice the dhamma, but also contribute abundantly to society. They participate in many areas such as education, counseling, and charity.

Education

Knowledge is very important, without education we cannot become wise people. Understanding this, the Bhikkhuni assembly consistently enhances the well-being of all its members and provides support to both children and lay followers.

Training the new lineage to maintain and protect the Bhikkhuni assembly. senior Bhikkhunis teach the practice to the young nuns in pirivana (schools for nuns). For example, at the Dekanduwala Bhikkhuni training center, the young girls or little nuns who are living there receive education from Bhikkhuni teachers with compassion and selfless effort characterizing Buddha’s disciples. Teachers convey the messenger of the Buddha to the new generation to help them practice the monastic life, and eventually receive the higher ordination (Upasampadā) to become fully ordained Bhikkhunis.

Furthermore, the Bhikkhunis also team up with teachers in universities. They teach students with compassion, kindness, and with their fulsome knowledge.

There are many children going to the Bhikkhuni temples to learn about ethics and positive thinking. They are taught the five precepts and ten wholesome deeds, the foundation of Buddhism. They receive helpful lessons that encompass the reality of their lives, including their duty as a family member, showing gratitude to elders, looking after others, and cultivating empathy towards all living beings. In the temples, there are many beneficial actions for children to learn to develop physically and psychologically.

Every Sunday, when the lay people go to Bhikkhuni temples to learn dhamma, they receive instructions on ethics and responsibility to family and society, and knowledge and skills for existence. Their lessons are based on the Sigālovāda Sutta and the Buddha’s teaching for lay devotees. Moreover, they learn to experience the practice of bhavana to improve their quality of life.

Counseling: Most females in household lives undergo hardships and problems which they cannot discuss with monks. These problems are mostly discussed with Bhikkhunis, many of whom are trained in psychological counseling. When people have stress and face problems in their life from work, mental and physical abuse, they go to the Bhikkhunis and receive advice and mental support.

Social Work

In the present social context, people face many problems in life. There are many things Bhikkunis do with empathy and sympathy to help people.

Many Bhikkhunis are working for the betterment of children. They offer clothes, books, and learning tools for students in schools. They want to instill in them that young children are taken care of by people and society, and that they should study hard to become good citizens in the future. Education will help young ones obtain the knowledge, skills, and human values they need to succeed in life. When a person has the right qualities, he (or she) can get great results and do great things. Especially during Covid times, students were given things to prevent the transmission of Covid, and assistance with food and education.

In many rural villages there are families who do not have sufficient food for daily consumption as a result of dependence on the soil, climate, and environment. When farmers cultivate the land and crops do not produce as expected, they have to live in poverty and hunger.

Interfaith Relations

All religions are valuable to humans; they wish for unity and harmony with each other. Bhikkhunis play a vital part in connecting with the heads of different religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism to seek optimal solutions for the problems of society in the areas of education, religion, and quality of life.

In Conclusion

The restoration of the Bhikkhuni order in Sri Lanka has been a significant development in contemporary society and Buddhist history. Bhikkhunis not only engage in personal practice and pursuit of the Buddha’s path to liberation within the parameters set by the monastic life, but they also contribute to society in various ways. They actively participate in education, counseling, and social work. Through education, they train and guide new generations of Bhikkhunīs, instilling them with the teachings of the Buddha. They also collaborate with university teachers to provide guidance and knowledge to students. Bhikkhunis play a vital role in imparting ethics and valuable life skills to children who visit Bhikkhuni temples. Additionally, they offer counseling services, assisting individuals in resolving their daily life problems and establishing them in the fundamental principles of Buddhist ethics (sīla). Bhikkhunis engage in social work, providing aid to those in need. In that way, the Bhikkhunis also support impoverished communities by ensuring access to food and other necessities. Moreover, Bhikkhunis actively foster relationships with representatives of other religions, seeking collective solutions to societal issues related to education, religion, and quality of life.

In Summary

The Bhikkhuni Sāsana in Sri Lanka continues to develop and make significant contributions to modern society, guided by the teachings of the Buddha, for the benefit and well-being of individuals and society. The Bhikkhunis have been facing significant challenges and opposition, which have nevertheless not deterred them from utmost dedication to their holy life and the rebuilding of the women’s Sangha. This will benefit the present and future generations, so the fourfold assembly of the Buddha can be restored in its integrity enhancing the longevity and vitality of the entire Buddha Sāsana, now whole again, in these troubled times.

REFERENCES

• Cullavagga, Chapter 10.
• Sigālovāda Sutta, Dīgha Nikāya 31.
• Bhikkhu Anālayo, Bhikkhuni Ordination, New York
• Karma Lekshe Tsomo, Mahāpajāpatī’s Legacy: The Buddhist Women Movement, New York: University of New York Press,

***

RELIGIOUS AND ECCLESIASTICAL DETERIORATION OF BUDDHISM

IN SRI LANKA DURING THE PERIOD OF BRITISH RULE

M.D. Sachini Hansika Chandrapala

Assistant Lecturer Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies

University of Ruhuna This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

S

Abstract

ri Lanka was governed by three colonial powers and among them the British are the ones who had the most impact on the island. Sri Lanka experienced British colonialism for more than one century. It has caused changes in folk culture on every side. This research examines the British influence on the religious and ecclesiastical deterioration of Buddhism during the British rule. The problem of this research is to examine the

reasons for the religious deterioration during British period and how it influences a religious revival. The objective of this study is to explain and analyze the reasons why the British conquered Sri Lanka and how their policies caused the destruction of Buddhism. Qualitative research data analysis method is used for this research using literary sources. It can be concluded that even the Portuguese and Dutch spread the Christian faith in coastal areas destroying Buddhist culture. British power influenced the whole country including the upcountry. During this time, British rulers spread Christianity using missionaries in Sri Lanka. Although they had agreed to protect the Buddhist nuns and monks in the Kandyan convention in 1815, they chose to ignore that clause. Educational and governmental policies taken by British were a threat to the Buddhist culture. Sinhala Buddhists lost social power and rights. It is clear that the British policies caused the deterioration of Buddhism in the country.

Introduction

The British came to Sri Lanka after the two Western nations, the Portuguese and the Dutch. Their rule in this country commenced in 1796 with the capture of the coastal areas of the country that were under the Dutch rule. In 1815, the British captured the Kandyan Kingdom, too, and made the entire country a British colony. Thereafter, the British ruled Sri Lanka for 133 years until 1948 and this had an enormous impact on the history. The Kandyan Convention can be known as a remarkable moment of the history. The agreement was signed on March 2, 1815 at Magul Maduawa, Kandy. The Convention contains twelve main clauses and clause five states that Buddhism and religions rights of the citizens, monks, and temples would be protected. However, this did not happen, and they did not abide by their commitment to the Convention and as they began to demolish the Buddhist culture. With reference to Buddhism, the educational and administrative policies that were activated in the country by British were the cause of the deterioration of Buddhist culture and Buddhist religion.

Methodology

Qualitative research data analysis method is used for this research. Qualitative data collection used secondary sources related to British rule in Sri Lanka and deterioration of Buddhist dispensation. This research is done by analyzing the relevant data by using the above methodology.

Result and Discussion

At the time when the British arrived in Asia, the coastal areas of Sri Lanka were under the rule of the Dutch and the Kingdom of Kandy existed as a separate, independent state. There had erupted controversies between the Dutch and the Kandyan king because of the troubles and the threats that the Kandyan Kingdom suffered because of the Dutch. Therefore, the rulers of the Kandyan Kingdom sought the support of the English to drive the Dutch from this country.

There were several diplomatic representations between the Kandyan Kingdom and the English before catching the coastal areas in the country, such as:

• John Pybus visiting King Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe in 1762
• Hugh Boyd visiting King Rajadhirajasinghe in 1782
• Robert Andrews visiting King Rajadhirajasinghe in 1795

The following are the significant stages of the British rule in coastal areas of Sri Lanka from 1796 until the capture of the Kandyan Kingdom in 1815:

• Rule under East India Company from 1796 to 1798
• Dual control from 1798–1802
• Rule under British Crown from 1802 onwards

The English invaded not only the coastal area, but also the Kandyan Kingdom twice, in 1803 and in 1815, with the objective of capturing the kingdom. By the year 1803, there had been a healthy relationship between the king and the people and therefore the invasion that the English launched in that year was an utter failure. However, by the year 1815, the Kandyan king had lost the faith of his people, and therefore the English could achieve their goal.

During the region of King Sri Wickrarma Rajasinghe there were internal power struggles in the Kandyan Kingdom.

• Struggles between king and aristocrats
• Crisis between the king and the monks
• Crisis among the aristocracy
• Crisis between the king and the common people Governor Robert Bounrig took advantage of this confusion

(on the intelligence provided by John Doyle and on the instructions of Ehelepola).

Tactically they came to the upcountry, claiming to protect the people. The tactics of the British led to the victory. The king fled to central Kandy with the two queens. The king was captured by the people of the upcountry and they were deported to Vellore, India in 1816. Thus, the British are the one and only colonial invader who was able to maintain power in Sri Lanka.

With reference to Buddhism in Sri Lanka, there was a close relationship between the people and monks in the temples. The monks were the instructors for the lay people. Every important event in the lives of the people was conducted under the guidance of chief monk of the temple. People offered alms to virtuous monks and it was simple system of folk life flourishing with Buddhist teachings. Sri Lankan Buddhist culture was influenced by invasions from time to time, but the colonial powers had a huge influence on Buddhism in the country. During the governance of two Western nations in Sri Lanka, they were able to catch the power of the coastal areas in the country. Meanwhile they went on a mission to spread Christianity in the coastal areas. A considerable amount of Buddhists in the coastal areas embraced Buddhism even under the strategies that were taken by the above two colonial powers in the country. However, they couldn’t attain control over the upcountry, and it was the British who ultimately secured governance over the entire nation, including the upcountry.

At the time when British ruled the country, Christianity was already a threat to Buddhism in coastal areas and Christianity had been spread throughout the areas destroying the Buddhist culture and the Buddhist dispensation. During the British period, British policies were the cause for the further deterioration of Buddhism including in the upcountry.

Although the Portuguese and Dutch spread Christianity in coastal areas, the British spread Christian power throughout the country. Their main aim was not to destroy Buddhism; their policies were aimed at the deterioration of Buddhism in the country. The educational policies and administrative rules were a threat to the Buddhist culture. When the British come to Sri Lanka, already Christianity was influenced by the simple folk Buddhist culture and the religious life of monks in coastal areas. But they could not influence the Buddhist culture of the upcountry. With reference to Buddhism, British rulers promised to protect Buddhism and Buddhist monks. The signing of the Kandyan Pact is another important event during this time. With the help of the aristocracy, the English were victorious and took over power in the country. They made a pact with the aristocracy to secure their victory. The agreement was signed on March 2, 1815 at Magul Maduawa, Kandy. It is called the Kandyan Convention. The Kandyan Convention contains twelve main clauses and clause five states that Buddhism and religions of the citizens, monks and temples would be protected. As they did not honor their commitments according to the Convention, and as they began to demolish Buddhist culture, freedom struggles against this oppression were conducted by the patriots of the country against the British governance.

The Freedom Struggle in 1818 was conducted for several reasons. Among them was that people felt that Buddhism was being destroyed. The administrative and law reforms implemented by the British disregarded the local traditions and customs. The powers, privileges, and sources of income of the aristocracy became unsafe at the time. Keppetipola Nilame, Madugalle Dissawa, Kivulegedara Mohottala, Second Adhikaram of Pilimathalawwe, Butewe Rate Rala, and Kohukumbure Rala were some of the prominent leaders of the freedom struggle. Monks such as Ihagama Rathanapala, Dumbara Unnanse (Thera), Polwatte Unwansea, Koggala chief monk, and Kapuliyadde Unnanse disrobed and engaged in struggles to protect Buddhism.

The Kandyans who suffered under the British rule once again rose against the foreign rule in 1848 with the intention of making a king from among themselves. It is called the second freedom struggle. The impact of the Constitutional Plantations was started under Colebrook reforms and a policy of selling lands was implemented to create the estates required for plantations. In terms of the Lands Act that was introduced in 1840, a large number of lands of which the ownership could not be verified were acquired by the government and thereby many people lost their traditional lands and farmlands. The traditional agriculture of this country deteriorated and the rural lifestyles were seriously affected. With the weakening of village councils which carried out functions such as maintenance of rural irrigation systems and resolving of minor disputes, the rural lifestyle collapsed. The relationship between the government and the people was further distanced and therefore the rulers were unable to identify the actual needs of the people. Gongalegoda Banda (David of Peliyagoda), Puran Appu (Francisco), and Dingirala were some of the leaders of the 1848 freedom struggle. As an impact of the struggle, the Sacred Tooth Relic was taken back into custody of the British. Monks had to die giving support to the Sinhala people. An example is Kudahapola Thero, who was killed when he refused to reveal the hiding place of one of the struggle’s leaders.

British educational and religious policies had a powerful influence on Buddhist culture and Buddhist education. During the rule of the British, members of a number of volunteer organizations arrived in Sri Lanka for the purpose of spreading Christianity. The missionary organizations adopted various strategies to spread Christianity through education. Its purpose was to reintroduce the Western school education in a Christian religious environment with the resumption of the Paris School system. The missionary organizations enlisted the help of Reverend James Kodinar and the clergy of the London Missionary Society. The primary purpose of the school reorganization was to propagate Christianity.

The Colombo Academy was established to provide an English education to the children of the local elite class. Its purpose was to select a limited number of indigenous students to indoctrinate for roles in public service. Frederick North allocated 5,000 pounds for the development of this education but the colonial secretary reduced it to 1,500 pounds.

Then-governor Robert Brownrig was dedicated to the development of education. In 1812, the Baptist Missionary Society started three types of schools:

• Native Language Schools
• English Schools
• Girl’s Schools

In 1814, the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society started:

• Daily schools
• Seminary school
• Sunday Dhamma School
• Wesleyan Academy started in

In 1816, American Ceylon Missionary started to teach Christianity to Tamil children in the north. The missionaries who studied Sinhala and Tamil languages managed the education in rural schools in local language mediums, while others managed the education in urban schools in the English medium. The education provided at missionary schools was aimed at spreading religion in this country and inculcating the Western culture into Lankan society. In 1829, Colebrook proposed that the medium of instruction in schools should be English, and missionaries should be empowered to start schools and to conduct educational activities. Lack of government support for the development of the local education system caused the decline of local education. The Middle School Commission, founded by Mackenzie in 1841, further expanded the spread of Christianity. Encouraging young people to study abroad was another mission of education during this time. In 1811, Governor Thomas Metland sent the children of local upper-class class families abroad to study, funded by the government. Following are some examples of students who went abroad for higher studies:

• Samuel William Dias
• Henri Dias
• Lubert Philips
• Ebrham Dias
• Henri De Seram
• Ebraham William Dias

During the period of British rule, knowledge of English language was a prerequisite for obtaining government employment. Because of this requirement, some youths from Sinhala and Tamil families who belonged to higher social classes and had received education in from the British, abandoned their traditional religions, names, and surnames, embraced Christianity and found well-paid high positions in the government. Distinct groups formed in the local society because of this English education. The missionaries divided among themselves the different parts of this country and carried out their activities of providing education.

Missionary organizations took measures to establish presses in Lanka and they published material such as books and magazines which contained writings on their religion and distributed them to people throughout the country. Various books on the Bible and Christianity were translated into Sinhala and Tamil languages. Missionaries made use of these publications to inculcate in the minds of the Lankans the ideas that those who followed Buddhism were heathens that worshipped images and their religious practices and rituals were futile acts. In 1839, Spence Hard published a paper on the British government and worship of statues in Sri Lanka. The following are the titles of some of the publications printed by the missionaries to spread their religion:

• Masika Thegga
• Uragala
• Lanka Nidhanaya

Translating the Bible into the Sinhala language another strategy taken by Christian priests to spread the religion among Sinhalese. Missionary priests travelled to places such as temples and other places where people gathered and presented lectures in Sinhala and Tamil languages to plant their religious beliefs in the minds the of people. In 1826, Methodist ministers distributed publications to the devotees who were going to Kelaniya Temple. Missionaries made attempts to get closer to people by way of engaging in social service work such as offering of gifts to the poor and helpless and caring for the sick. However, such measures implemented by the missionaries to spread their religion did not have a considerable impact on the people in rural areas of the country, but many Sinhalese and Tamils who were from well-to-do families in urban areas seemed to have embraced Christianity. Most of the fishing community in the western, northwestern, and northern parts of Sri Lanka became Christian.

Establishment of an import-export economic system also contributed to the cultural decline. The people of this country were accustomed to Western products and were motivated to appreciate them. The society brought by the British was based entirely on money and as a result, different groups developed: the rich, the middle class, and the working class. The theft, counterfeiting, alcohol, and gambling brought by these outside influences confused the rural society. Under the rule of the British, Buddhism was neglected and liquor shops were opened in the Kandyan areas which led to the deterioration of social ethics.

Cultivation of Western customs in Sri Lankan society was cause for the damage of simple Buddhist folk life. Instead of simple lifestyle, they introduced luxurious lifestyle. Sri Lankan Buddhists who follow Buddhism practiced simplicity. They conducted economy, education, and lifestyle in a simple way. But, with the colonial influence, Western religious practices, usage of money, huge palaces, dinner parties, meals and drinks, Western dress, and Western names and language were included in Sinhala Buddhist culture. As a result of recruiting the Indian Tamil community into the economic sector of Sri Lanka during British rule, Tamil culture was impacted. Registration of marriages, deaths, and births were conducted according to British rule. In the registration of a birth, children were baptized. As an example, Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thero had been baptized and given the Christian name “Don Nikolas.” Sri Lankans had to connect with Christianity.

Thus, the British rule weakened the status of monks in society. In 1840, missionary organizations protested to the British government and requested that they stop their nominal support of Buddhism. The traditional authority of the Buddhist temples was rescinded by the government, neglecting the monks. The connection between Buddhist laity and monks was destroyed. The temple was an isolated place and Buddhist customs and practices were not honored. The missionaries claimed that Buddhist followers were pagans and this contributed to the decline of Buddhist temples and Buddhist monks. In 1839, Spence Hard published a paper opposing the Buddhist practice of honoring statutes in Sri Lanka. In 1843, Thai monks tried to conduct a Tooth Relic procession in the country and the British government was opposed to that. In 1857, Sri Lankan monks again tried to conduct such a procession and the government did not give any support. Further, according to Act No. 10 in 1856, the British government condemned the traditional rights of Buddhism.

Conclusion

It can be concluded that even the Portuguese and Dutch spread the Christian faith in coastal areas destroying Buddhist culture. British power influenced the whole country including the upcountry. During this time British rulers spread Christianity using institutions of the missionaries in Sri Lanka. Although they had agreed to protect Buddhism and monks at the Kandyan Convention in 1815, they did not honor that clause. Specially, educational policies and government policies that were taken by British were a threat to the Buddhist culture and Sinhala Buddhists were forced to lose social power and rights. It is clear that the British policies and oppression resulted in the deterioration of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, including coastal areas and upcountry.

REFERENCES

• Bandarage, A. Colonialism in Sri Lanka: the Political Economy of the Kandyan Highlands, 1833–1886. Colombo: Stamford Lake Publications,
• De Silva, K. M. A History of Sri Lanka. Delhi, India: University of California Press,
• Harris, Theravada Buddhism and the British Encounter: Religious, Missionary and C o l o n i a l Experience in Nineteenth Century Sri Lanka. UK: Routledge, 2009.

• Mendis, C. Ceylon under the British. Asian Educational Services, 2005.
• Mendis, V. L. B. The Advent of the British to Ceylon. 1762–1803. Dehiwala,
• Mills, L. Ceylon under British Rule 1795–1932. New York: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd., 1964.
• Powell, The Kandyan Wars: the British Army in Ceylon 1803–1818. New Delhi: Navrang, 1973.
• Sivasundaram, Islanded: Britain, Sri Lanka and the Bounds of an Indian Ocean Colony. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2013.

***

SOCIETY IN SRI LANKA THROUGH THE SOUTHERN SCHOOL BUDDHIST PAINTINGS: A BRIEF OVERVIEW

K.V.J. Koshalee

Lecturer in Archaeology Department of History and Archaeology Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences

University of Ruhuna, This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

T

Abstract

his paper examines the intricate relationship between Buddhism  and      Sri       Lankan                      society       during     the transformative period of the nineteenth century, specifically focusing on the Buddhist paintings attributed to the Southern School of Art. By carefully analyzing the distinctive stylistic attributes, thematic narratives, and multifaceted influences characterising this artistic tradition, the study aims to shed light on the complex interaction between cultural, religious, and societal dynamics. By examining selected paintings and their underlying moral messages, this study attempts to unearth insights into the preservation of local traditions, the enduring legacy of Buddhism and the impact of colonialism in southern Sri Lanka.

Introduction

This study is part of an ongoing, extensive research endeavor focused on the Buddhist narratives within the Southern School of Art and a general discussion (more or less) related to the chosen topic for an invited academic forum. While the relationship between art and society can be explored from various perspectives, it is important to note that this paper intentionally omits an extensive theoretical framework as the primary aim is to provide a concise overview tailored for a knowledgeable audience engaged in Pali and Buddhist studies, rather than those specializing in archaeology and art history. Therefore, this paper specifically focuses on understanding the society in Sri Lanka in the nineteenth century, a period corresponding to the British colonial rule in the country, by analyzing selected paintings and the moral messages they convey. Through this analysis, the study aims to uncover insights into three key areas: the preservation of local traditions, the enduring legacy of Buddhism and the impact of colonialism. Under these key areas, the study seeks to understand (1) how these selected paintings reflect the preservation of traditional cultural practices and customs in southern Sri Lanka and their continuity over time, (2) how Buddhism is portrayed in these paintings and how it has persisted and evolved in the region, (3) how colonialism is portrayed or how it has left its mark on the culture and art depicted in these paintings.

The intricate relationship between art, religion, and society has long fascinated scholars of southern paintings. Recent studies, including those conducted by Lakdusinghe (1990), Somathilake (2002), Bandaranayake (2006), Mahinda (2007), Urugodawatte (2014), and numerous others, have involved in- depth exploration of the multifaceted interconnections among these three elements, encompassing archaeological and art historical perspectives. While the focus of most studies on southern Buddhist paintings revolves around their artistic style, comparing them to contemporary styles prevalent in central parts of the country, particularly the Kandyan School and its regional variations, these studies also delve into the chosen themes of the paintings and their communication to the community. Bandaranayake, for instance, extends this approach by analyzing the composition of selected themes and the spatial arrangement of image house walls (Bandaranayake 2006, 204– 211). The society portrayed in the Southern School of Art is often seen as an extension of the Buddhist revival in southern regions during the waning of Dutch authority and the rise of British rule, which led to a renewed interest in Buddhism and Buddhist paintings in these areas (Lakdusinghe 1990, 111; Bandaranayake 2006, 17, 201).

Furthermore, Western culture and the presence of Christianity significantly influenced the art produced by the Southern School (Urugodawatte 2014, 194–198). However, it is noteworthy that while the impact of European influence on Southern paintings has been thoroughly examined within the framework of “The Society in the Art;” “The Art in the Society” which is predominantly considered within the context of the social history of art history remains a relatively less explored topic.

This study does not attempt to answer the more complicated questions about the role of the Southern School of Art in contemporary society of the time. Instead, its objective is to capture a snapshot of the intricate connections between Buddhism and society by examining artworks from the Southern School. Through an analysis of the artistic techniques employed, the principal themes depicted, and the historical and social context in which these artworks were produced, this aims to understand how spiritual beliefs were interwoven with societal transformations. By closely examining specific paintings and their conveyed messages, this paper seeks to illuminate how local traditions were upheld, Buddhism’s enduring significance, and colonialism’s impact on the southern regions of Sri Lanka.

1.  Methodology

A comprehensive methodological approach is employed to investigate the intricate dynamics of this era, encompassing art historical analysis, cultural contextualisation, and profound thematic exploration. The foundation of this exploration rests on a meticulous deconstruction of the Southern School’s distinctive visual elements, compositional strategies, and thematic preferences. Additionally, a rigorous historical investigation into the socio-cultural milieu that defined the nineteenth century, emphasising the colonial period, is undertaken to illuminate the forces that contributed to shaping these artistic creations. A discerning analysis of carefully selected paintings underscores the intricate narrative techniques the Southern School employs to convey profound moral and religious messages.

2.  Southern Buddhist Paintings and the Society

It is widely acknowledged that the visual vocabulary of the Southern School, characterized by its vibrant palettes, meticulous detailing, and evocative themes, represents southern Sri Lanka’s rich cultural tapestry. The emergence and flourishing of the Southern School of Art stand as a testament to the intricate interplay of internal and external influences that contributed to the socio-cultural landscape of the nineteenth to the early twentieth century in Sri Lanka. Art always reflects societal principles and cultural distinctiveness, mirroring the characteristics of its time. As such, the creations of the Southern School bear witness to the essence of southern Sri Lankan society. Beyond their aesthetic appeal, these artworks encapsulate a profound narrative of cultural assimilation, spiritual commitment, and communal principles. As visual artifacts, these paintings enable us to explore the dynamic relationship between Buddhism and society during this era.

As previously mentioned, this study maintains its primary focus on analyzing nineteenth-century society through the perspective of Buddhist paintings. To accomplish this, it delves into the interactions between society and Buddhism during this transformative period, rejecting a compartmentalized approach that separates these subjects. The study places a significant emphasis on exploring deeper societal aspects, going beyond the previously discussed British influences that intertwined with local cultural traditions, particularly in the coastal regions of Sri Lanka’s western and southern provinces, where the Southern School of Art originated and fostered a vibrant exchange of artistic methods, symbols, and concepts.

The conceptual ideas developed by Bandaranayake have garnered significant appreciation and are closely adhered to in this study, particularly his concepts of the realistic world, idealized atmosphere, and imaginary realms (Bandaranayake 2006, 2012). Building upon these ideas and the analysis of Southern paintings, numerous aspects reflecting contemporary society have been identified as follows.

2.1.  Realistic snapshots of daily life and cultural practices

The intricate compositions of the Southern School’s paintings offer a vivid and detailed portrayal of daily life, cultural rituals, and spiritual practices in southern Sri Lanka during the nineteenth to twentieth centuries. These artworks provide a unique and immersive window into the bustling streets with carriages, religious and royal processions, ornate architecture (including architectural details, furniture, lamps, etc.), diverse social strata, customs, and various other aspects of daily life that defined the region during that period. For example, in one painting at Mulkirigala Rajamahavihara, a vibrant dining scene is depicted, capturing the intricacies of culinary preparations, the presence of bananas and other fruits, and various food containers hanging from the roof, with a woman serving food to a male. Through meticulous detailing, including intricate patterns on clothing and architectural elements of buildings, these paintings transport observers to a bygone era, enabling them to visualize the tangible realities of daily existence.

2.2.   Influences of colonialism and cultural exchange on artistic expression

The influence of colonialism and cross-cultural interactions is evident in the paintings of the Southern School. The incorporation of European attire, architectural motifs, and cultural symbols within the artworks reflects a complex interplay between local traditions and external influences. This fusion of elements underscores society’s adaptability and resilience to change. For instance, numerous paintings at Karagampitiya Subodharamaya depict a harmonious blend of European clothing, furniture, equipment, and implements, emphasising the coexistence of indigenous customs and external influences. This amalgamation of styles vividly illustrates the society’s capacity to integrate diverse cultural elements into artistic expressions.

The colonial era witnessed a resurgence of Buddhism in the southern territories of Sri Lanka, catalyzed by the Dutch and British colonial powers. This revival breathed fresh vitality into Buddhism and its artistic expressions, revitalising cultural heritage and spiritual devotion. At the same time, the influx of Western culture and Christianity introduced a new layer of complexity to the creative output of the Southern School. This harmonious synthesis of traditional elements with contemporary sensibilities represents a dynamic artistic response to the evolving cultural landscape. It encapsulates the interplay between local religious practices and external cultural influences in a compelling juxtaposition.

2.3 Moral narratives and ethical values in art

Beneath their captivating visual allure, the paintings of the Southern School carry profound moral narratives that beautifully mirror the ethical principles of Buddhism. These narratives breathe life into an idealised realm, presenting tales infused with virtues that hold universal resonance. For example, the painting Vessantara Jataka illustrates a ruler’s boundless generosity. This artwork serves as a poignant moral lesson in selflessness and compassion. Conversely, stories like the Telapatta Jataka act as cautionary tales, reminding us of the dangers of indulging in sensual pleasures and unjustly claiming ownerless possessions. Beyond their ability to captivate, these visual narratives serve as conduits for ethical teachings, encapsulating the core tenets of Buddhist philosophy.

2.4.      Depiction of mythical realms and metaphysical beliefs

The artistic fabric of the Southern School stretches far beyond earthly confines, reaching into the realms of myth and metaphysics. One finds depictions of celestial beings, planetary deities, zodiac constellations, and other ethereal motifs within this expansive canvas. All these elements enrich the narrative by offering glimpses into the cosmological worldview of the society influenced by Bali paintings (Lakdusinghe 1990, 114).

In numerous instances, the interiors of temples are adorned with circular medallions, prominently featuring symbols representing celestial bodies and zodiac signs. These artistic elements underscore the profound significance of celestial entities within the broader belief system. Meanwhile, the upper segments of these paintings chronicle Jataka stories, weaving intricate narratives, while the lowermost register vividly portrays the various hells or underworlds within Buddhist cosmology. These representations collectively provide a comprehensive understanding of society’s metaphysical beliefs and cultural expressions, showcasing a canvas that transcends the boundaries of the earthly plane.

2.5.        Preservation amidst challenges: continuity of Buddhist traditions

One of the most remarkable aspects illuminated by these artworks is the continuity of Buddhist traditions despite the challenges posed by colonialism. Preserving local religious and cultural practices underscores the society’s resilience in navigating intricate political circumstances. This adaptive approach allowed the community to uphold its heritage while embracing external influences, exemplifying the enduring spirit of Sri Lankan culture. An exemplary instance is the paintings portraying traditional Buddhist processions, highlighting the unbroken lineage of religious practices that persisted despite colonial occupation and external pressures. These artworks are not mere static representations but dynamic records of a society in flux, adapting to changes while steadfastly preserving its core values and traditions. These paintings offer a profound and multifaceted understanding of the past, bridging history and contemporary reflections through their intricate details, vibrant narratives, and ethical teachings.

3. Conclusion

In summary, the Buddhist paintings originating from the Southern School of Art provide us with a captivating glimpse into the intricate interplay between Buddhism and the society of southern Sri Lanka during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. These artworks go beyond their aesthetic appeal, serving as invaluable historical insights and cultural repositories. They effectively bridge the gap between the past and present, connecting contemporary observers with the rich tapestry of history, culture, and spirituality that defines southern Sri Lanka. The findings of this study underscore these artistic treasures’ invaluable role in shedding light on the historical, cultural, and spiritual dimensions of southern Sri Lanka. As we explore the intricacies of the Southern School’s paintings, we encounter diverse narratives that mirror the complexities of society, belief systems, and cultural interactions. These paintings provide us with a window into a world shaped by continuity and change, where the profound teachings of Buddhism interweave with the nuanced fabric of everyday existence.

In conclusion, the Buddhist paintings of the Southern School of Art stand as powerful testimony to the enduring capacity of artistic expression to convey profound philosophical and moral messages. These artworks not only showcase the artistic prowess of their creators but also offer rich evidence through which we can explore the intricate relationship between Buddhism and society. As we contemplate the vibrant compositions, intricate details, and evocative themes within these paintings, we are reminded of the profound impact that Buddhism has had on shaping the cultural and spiritual landscape of southern Sri Lanka. In a world where cultural heritage often faces challenges from modernisation and globalisation, the Buddhist paintings of the Southern School of Art stand as resilient indication of the enduring strength of tradition and the profound influence of spirituality on society. These artworks transcend their physical nature, transcending paint strokes to become vessels of cultural memory, moral guidance, and spiritual contemplation. As we engage with these visual narratives, we are invited to reflect upon the universal truths they convey—values of compassion, selflessness, and virtue that resonate across time and continue to shape the human experience.

REFERENCES

• Bandaranayake, (2006). The Rock and Wall Paintings of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Stamford Lake (Pvt.) Ltd.
• Lakdusinghe, (1990). Painting Art of Sri Lanka: Kandyan Period (1400 A.D. – 1815 A.D.). In N. Wijesekara (ed.), Painting (S. Herat, translator, Vol. 5, pp. 103–118). Colombo: Department of Archaeology.
• Mahinda, U. (2007). Dakuṇē vihāravala mahanuvara sampradāyē citra (Paintings of the Kandy Tradition in Southern Temples). Colombo: Godage and Brothers.
• Somathilake, (2002). Mahanuvara sampradāyē bauddha bitusituvam kalāva (Buddhist Wall Paintings of the Kandy Tradition). Colombo: S. Godage and Brothers.
• Urugodawatte, Bindu, “Influence of European

Diaspora on Sri Lankan Buddhist Art” in Circulation of Cultures and Culture of Circulation: Diasporic Cultures of South Asia During 18th to 20th Centuries,” SAARC Cultural Centre, Sri Lanka.

***

THE HISTORY OF BUDDHISM IN SRI LANKA IN THE MODERN ERA

Dr. Ven. Kahawatte Siri Sumedha

President of Indo Sri Lanka International. Buddhist Association

Chief Incumbent of Jambudvipa Sri Lanka Buddhist Temple, Varanasi, India

S

Introduction

ri Lanka, a small island nation situated in the region of South Asia, has an extensive Buddhist historical history spanning several thousand years. This study examines the historical development of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, documenting its evolution from the nineteenth century to the present day. The enormous growth and influence of Theravāda Buddhism in Sri Lanka has had a lasting impact on the global Buddhist community. This achievement is attributable to the leadership of renowned leaders, the concerted efforts of Buddhist revival groups, and the fruitful relationships established with international collaborators. The objective of this study is to examine and assess the historical background, continued significance, and cultural aspects of Buddhism in Sri Lanka.

Discussion

Theravāda Buddhism is the official religion of Sri Lanka and is practiced by 70 percent of the population. Sri Lankan Buddhists share many similarities with south and southeast Asian Buddhism, particularly in Myanmar and Thailand as a result of traditional cultural exchange. Sri Lanka is one of the oldest traditional Buddhist countries. The current Sri Lankan constitution has declared Buddhism as the state religion.p

The history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka in the modern era began with the most successful attempt to revive the Sangha led by Venerable Welivita Sri Sarananankara Thero (1698–1778). He restored higher ordination on the island by inviting monks from Thailand, founding modern Siyam Nikāya with the support of the Kandyan King, Kīrthi Sri Rājasinghe. The first half of the nineteenth century saw the formation of a new monastic fraternity, the Amarapura Nikāya, by monks. They traveled to Burma in the first decade of the nineteenth century to bring back a new higher ordination and later established another school, Rāmañña Nikāya, also with the support of Burma in 1864 by Ambagahawatte Indrasabhawara Gnanasami Mahā Thera (Buddhism in Sri Lanka, Buddhanet 2023).

The national Buddhist revival movement began as a response to Christian missionaries and British colonial rule. This movement was empowered by the results of several public debates by Buddhist monks, Venerable Migettuwatte Gunānanda Thero and Venerable Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thero. The famous Pānadurā debate of 1873 was widely seen as a victory for Buddhists with the Buddhist revivalist movement educational activities receiving an impetus. This was due to the Buddhist monks who formed an institute of higher education in 1841 that produced a number of scholar monks. This institute was Pramadhammachetiya Pirivena, Ratmalana. Two of its most distinguished scholars, Venerable Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Thero founded Vidyodaya Pirivena in 1872, and Venerable Sri Ratmalane Dharmaloka Thero founded Vidyalankara Pirivena in 1876. Many monks from all countries came to these two institutes to study Buddhism and oriental languages.

In contemporary times, Sri Lanka’s efforts to propagate Theravāda Buddhism throughout the world have been extremely successful. In 1880 Henry Steel Olcott arrived in Sri Lanka from America with Madam Blavatsky of the Theosophical Society. They established the Buddhist Theosophical Society with the support of Sinhala Buddhist leaders in 1880 with the goal of establishing Buddhist schools in the country. Olcott sponsored the Buddhist colleges Ananda in Colombo and Dharmaraja in Kandy to promote Buddhism as a scientific religion.

The Sri Lankan Theosophical Society, under patronage of Olcott, established a publication unit and they published The Buddhist (Bauddhayā) Sinhala newspaper. As a result of their effort, Vesak, the birthday of the Buddha, became a public holiday. In January 1884, Colonel Olcott took the initiative forming a Buddhist Defense Committee and started a campaign to get the Vesak holiday which had been abolished by the Dutch, restored. Governor Sir Arther Hamilton Gordon issued a proclamation on March 27, 1885, declaring Vesak Full Moon Day a public holiday. Further, he suggested the hoisting of a Buddhist flag on that day to symbolize the unity of Buddhists and the triumph of the Buddhist revival movement. The flag consisted of the colors nīla, sapphire blue; pīta, golden yellow; lohita, white; mānjestra, scarlet; and prabhāshvara, a mixture of the five (Ranatunga and Perera, 2010).

The flag has been adopted as the unifying symbol of Buddhists throughout the world. British scholar and civil servant T.W. Rhys Davids (1843–1922), who founded the Pāli Text Society in 1881, served in Sri Lanka during the British administration. When he was posted as assistant government agent at Nuwarakalāviya in 1887, Rhys Davids became involved with the excavation of the ancient Sinhala city, Anuradhapura. The formation of the Pāli Text Society in England by T.W. Rhys Davids was a great significant revival of Buddhism with the objectives of promoting the study of Pāli and publishing ancient canonical and commentarial texts (Aṭṭhakathā) in Roman script. Credit should be given to Western scholars for their pioneering work in the revival of Buddhism during this century and its spread to the West by Mrs. Rhys Davids, Wilhelm Geiger, Max Muller, and others with the support of Sri Lankan Buddhist monks (Dhammananda 1999).

Anagārika Dharmapāla, the great son of Sri Lanka, established the Mahā Bodhi Society in 1891 with the goal of reviving Buddhism in India and restoring the ancient Buddhist shrine in Bodhgaya and other places associated with the life of the Buddha. Anagārika Dharmapāla also represented Theravāda Buddhism as a world religion at the world’s Parliament of Religions held in Chicago, America in 1893 and engaged to create a universal network of Buddhists around the world and unite all Buddhists (Dharmapala 1991).

The associations of the Buddhist revival also contributed much to the publication of Buddhist literature. Among them, some prime Buddhist revival scholars are Sir D. B. Jayatilake,

1926. R. Senanayake, Walishinghe Harischandra, W. A. Silva, Piyadasa Sirisena, and Martin Wickramasinghe. The Buddhist revival also resulted in the spreading of Buddhism in European and Western countries. Anagārika Dharmapāla established the London Buddhist Vihāra in 1926. Later, Venerable H. Saddhāthissa Mahā Thero was appointed as the chief incumbent monk by the Mahā Bodhi Society in 1954. Ashoka Weerarathne opened a new chapter for the spread of Buddhism in Germany and Europe by establishing Burling Buddhist Vihara in Germany and founding the German Dharmadūta Society. Monks from Sri Lanka were also sent to live in Germany and share the Buddha Dhamma in 1957. The first Theravāda Buddhist mission headed by Bhikkhu Soma of Vajiramaya Colombo was undertaken in Germany under the banner of the German Dharmadūta Society. Venerable Nanaponika (1901–1994) who was ordained by Venerable Nanathilaka, was a thinker and communicator who co-founded the Buddhist Publication Society (BPS) in Kandy, Sri Lanka and served as its long-time president and editor. His wise guidance, overflowing compassion, and dedication to the dhamma transformed the BPS into a major Buddhist publication bringing the Buddha’s teachings to over eighty countries around the world.

Gordon Douglas who was ordained in Colombo in 1899 as Bhikkhu Ashoka, was the first English person to enter Theravada from the West. Since the Buddhist revival, Sri Lanka has been an important source for scholarship in Western languages. One of the first Westerners, Bhikku Nanatiloka Maha Thero from Germany, established an island hermitage and ordained several monks there from the West, among them Bhikkhu Nanaponika (the founder of the Buddhist Publication Society in Kandy).

From the 1950’s onwards, a Sri Lankan Forest Tradition has been developing focusing on renunciation, meditation, and forest dwelling. Venerable Puvakdandawe Pannananda Maha Thero (1817–1887) was one of the first monks to establish a forest hermitage in Batuvita and Kirinda. This movement also produced excellent scholar philosophers, those who sought to reform the Sangha by returning to the forest life and strictly following the Vinaya. Among these Buddhist monks were Kadawadduwe Jinawansa, Vaturavila Nanananda, Matara Sri Nanarama, and Katukurunde Nanananda, all of whom were pioneers associated with Sri Kalyani Yogasrama Sanstha, Nissarana Vanaya, Nauna Aramaya, and several forest monasteries. On January 8, 1898, a young group of twenty, mainly clerks working in government departments, took a farseeing step. They resolved to form a Young Men’s Buddhist Association (YMBA) with Anagarika Dharmapala presiding over the meeting. Then principal of Ananda Buddhist Collage, D.B. Jayatilake, was invited to be its first president. Following an idea that there should be an annual conference, the Young Men’s Buddhist Association later decided to establish the All Ceylon Buddhist Congress in December 1919. World-renowned Buddhist academic scholar, Professor G.P. Malalasekara, became its president for eighteen years, from 1939 to 1957, which was its golden era (All Ceylon Buddhist Congress 2011).

A special body called Lanka Bauddha Mandalaya (Buddhist Council) had been formed under the patronage of the prime minister of Sri Lanka, S.W.R.D. Bandaranayake in 1956. Translation of the Tripitaka into the Sinhala language was marked by the 2,500^th Buddha Jayanthi celebration on the occasion of Buddha’s Parinibbana and to honor the task undertaken by this council.

Work in compiling an encyclopedia of Buddhism was also started aimed at giving a comprehensive account of the origins of the world religious and its development over twenty-five centuries. This project brought Buddhist scholars of the world together to provide information to both Theravada and Mahayana traditions. In March 1957, the government of Sri Lanka appointed a Buddha Sasana Commission to study ways and means of fostering Buddhism. Far-reaching recommendations were made by the commission, and a related report released in November 1959.

The tradition of pirivena education for the monks dates back nearly 600 years. These educational institutes, which are registered with the Ministry of Education, received an annual grant based on the status and number of monks. The two leading pirivenas which received university status have been converted to full-fledged secular universities.

The Sāsana Sevaka Society, a Buddhist organization founded by the Most Venerable Madihe Pannasīha Mahānayaka Maha Thero, set up the first Theravada Buddhist temple in America in 1966 with the opening of Washington Buddha Vihara in Washington DC. Since then, Theravada Buddhist centers have been established in many European countries. America, Australia, and Sri Lanka played a prominent role in the establishment of the World Buddhist Sangha Council (WBSC) in Colombo in May 1966. Their aim was to develop exchanges between Buddhist religious and monastic communities of different traditions worldwide and help to carry out activities for the transmission of Buddhism (Abeynayake and Tilakaratne 2011).

During the first half of the twentieth century, several equally eminent Sri Lankan Buddhist monks such as Nārada Mahā Thero, Madihe Pannasīha Maha, Nayaka Maha Thero, and Weligama Nandrathana Maha Thero from the well-known Vajirārāma Temple, Bambalapitiya, Colombo contributed to strengthening of Nepalese Buddhism by establishing a sīma, a specifically approved space for monastic Vinaya Law activities which was one of their great contributions from 1945 to 1955.

A substantial expansion of Buddhism in Canada began in the last half of 1974 when the Toronto Buddhist Vihara Society was established under the auspices of Mahā Thero Dikwela Piyananda and Mahā Thero H. Gunarathana of the Washington Buddhist Vihara and Thero Piyadassi from the Vajirārāmaya Temple in Colombo, Sri Lanka.

The first Sinhalese Buddhist organization was the Singapore Buddhist Association (SBA) formed in 1939. The temple was built in 1952 by the prominent Ceylonese monk, Venerable Mahaveera Maha Thero (1913–2002). Sri Lankaramaya at St. Michaels Road was constructed for the Sri Lankan immigrant population in Singapore.

There are also Buddhist Groups in Scandinavia and Switzerland. The Buddhist Society in Sweden was formed in 1957 in Gutenberg as a result of a visit by the Venerable Narada Maha Thero from Sri Lanka in 1954.

In 1963, Venerable Baddegama Wimalawansa Anunayake

Mahā Thero began Buddhist missionary work under the banner of the Mahā Mahinda International Dharmadūta Society and established its centers in Mysore, Maharastra, Uttar Pradesh, Assam in India and Nepal. Most Venerable Nāyaka Maha Thero also ordained children from India, Nepal, and other countries as sāmaneras for the propagation of Buddha Dhamma. Venerable Wimalawansaā Thero, a respected senior Buddhist monk, was a remarkable national figure who devoted his lifetime to the field of religious, social, educational, and political activities. He established Sri Lanka Vidyālaya, the oriental Buddhist education institute at the Ode Temple in Maradana, Colombo, one of the great Buddhist contributions during the twentieth century in Sri Lanka (Maha Mahinda International Dharmaduta Society 2023).

Venerable Nārada Maha Thero was a scholar, translator, educator, and Buddhist missionary in the twentieth century. In 1934, he visited Indonesia, the first Theravāda monk to do so in more than 450 years. During this opportunity, Narada Maha Thero planted a Bodhi tree on the southeastern side of Borobudur on March 10, 1934. In 1960 on November 2, Nārada Mahā Thero brought a Bodhi tree to the south Vietnamese Temple, Thich Ca Phat Dai, and made many visits to the country during the 1960s from Sri Lanka. He made great contributions to sharing the Theravāda Buddha Dhamma in modern Vietnam (Abeynayake and Tilakaratne 2011).

The first mission to West Africa was undertaken by Piyadassi Maha Thero of Vajirarama Temple, Sri Lanka in 1967 to Ghana. He took two Bodhi saplings from Anuradhapura and planted them in Ghana on the full moon day of Poson, June 1967, at the Black Star Square.

The Postgraduate Institute of Buddhism and Pāli was established by the government of Sri Lanka in 1975 as a center for higher studies in Buddhism.

The Buddhist and Pāli University, also established in 1982 by the government of Sri Lanka, conducted a two-year foreign missionary program in the English medium in addition to regular Buddhist studies as language studies.

Recognition of the full moon day of the month, Vesak, as a day of observance by the United Nation General Assembly in 1999 was a notable development in the history of world Buddhism initiated by Sri Lankan foreign minister, Honorable Lakshman Kadirgamar, Venerable K. Piyathissa Nāyaka Mahā Thero, President of New York Sri Lanka Buddhist Vihara, and Her Excellency Chandrika Kumaratunghe, the President of Sri Lanka, Honorable Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Prime Minister of India, extended patronage for this noble event. An article of the present constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka in 1978 gave Buddhism the foremost place and declared that it shall be the state’s duty to protect and foster the Buddha Sāsana while assuring all religions the rights granted by other articles.

Although Buddhism has spread to new lands, especially to the Americas, Europe, and Australia, Asia was the cradle of Buddhism for over two millenniums. There has been a gradual downturn in the whole of central Asia, Persia, Hindu Kush Kashmir Punjab, and single areas were lost to Islam. Asian Buddhist countries such as Korea and China are also facing a new threat from evangelical Christianity and some modern traditions. The Buddhists of Sri Lanka under the leadership of the Mahā Sangha have preserved the teachings in pristine purity for all the world—the Buddha’s dispensation.

Conclusion

The history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, which spans from the eighteenth century to the present day, demonstrates the enduring character and adaptability of this ancient religious tradition. Sri Lankan Buddhists, facing challenges including British hegemony and missionary efforts, launched a revivalist movement, led by dedicated monastic figures and intellectuals that preserved their cultural heritage and spread Buddhist teachings to uncharted regions. From the establishment of monastic fraternities to the global spread of Theravada Buddhism, this path has been marked by immense achievements and contributions. In the twenty-first century, Sri Lanka will continue to play a vital role in the preservation and dissemination of Buddhist teachings, the promotion of global Buddhist unity, and the protection of the Buddha’s noble truths.

Sukho buddhānam uppādo sukhā saddhammadesanā sukhā saṅghassa sāmaggī samaggānaṃ tapo sukho

Happy is the birth of the Buddha; happy is the teaching of the noble truth; happy is the unity of the Sangha; happy is the discipline of the unit.

Bhavatu sabba-maṅgalaṃ May All Beings Be Well and Happy

 REFERENCES

• Abeynayake, O. and Tilakaratne, A. (2011). 2600 Years of Sambuddhatva: Global Journey of  Awakening. Sri Lanka: Ministry of Buddhasasana and Religious Affairs, Government of Sri
• All Ceylon Buddhist (2011) “Sri Lanka’s Rich Buddhist Heritage.” Colombo, Sri Lanka: Sumathi Printing (Pvt.) Ltd.
• “Buddhism in Sri Lanka.” Accessed September 18, 2023, https://www.buddhanet.net/edu- template/images/estudy/header_12.gif
• Dharmapala, (1991). Return to Righteousness: A Collection of Speeches, Essays, and Letters of the Anagarika Dharmapala, edited by Ananda Guruge. Sri Lanka: Anagarika Dharmapala Birth Centenary Committee, Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs.
• Dhammananda, K (1999). Sri Lanka’s Contribution to Buddhism, Sasana Abhiwurdhi Wardhana Society, Buddha Maha Vihara. Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur.

• Maha Mahinda International Dharmaduta Society, 60th Anniversary Edition, (2023).
• Ranatunga, C., and Perera, S. (2010). A Fresh Dawn: Sri Lanka’s Rich Buddhist Heritage. Colombo: All Ceylon Buddhist Congress, Colombo.

***

THE GALLERY PICTURES

B

uddhist Studies Seminar, the Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society Colombo, July 16, 2023

1. The Sign of the Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society

 The front side of temple where the seminar was held

3. The Buddha Stupa in Colombo Temple

 The Lecture Hall

5. Nandawansa, Dr. Sumedha

and Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương lighting the Oil Lamp

 Ven. Medagama Nandawansa with his Welcome Address

7. Ven. Kahawatte Siri Sumedha with his Speech

8. The MC - Raluwe Padmasiri

9. Group of Presenters

 Presiding Group

11. The Researchers and Scholars

 Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong presents her paper

13. The Seminar Hall

14. Ven. Beligalle Dhammajoti presents his paper

 The Group Photo

 The Hương Sen Pilgrimage

17. Listening to the lectures

18. Aparakke Sugathawansa, Ven. K. Siri Sumedha

and Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong at the break time

19. Vietnamese Scholars in the Seminar Hall

20. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong’s Books are offered to Seminar Scholars

21. Ven. Medagama Nandawansa offers the Seminar Certificate to Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong

22. The Colombo Seminar Certificate of Presenter: Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong

23. Meeting for Seminar

 The Seminar Board prepares the workshop

25. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong presents the Certificate to the Speaker, Senior Lecturer Taldena Ariyawimala Thera

 Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong offers Gift to the MC, Raluwe Padmasiri

27. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong presents the Certificate to the Speaker - Ven. Beligalle Dhammajoti

28. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong presents the Certificate to the Speaker, Ven. Bhikkhuni Madulle Vijithananda

29. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong presents the Certificate to the Speaker, Rev. O.U. Dhammadheera

30. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong presents the Certificate to the Speaker, Dr. A.A.R. Priyanka

31. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong presents the Certificate to the Speaker, Ms. M.D. Sachini Hansika Chandrapala

32. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong presents the Certificate to the Speaker, Mrs. K.V.J. Koshalee

33. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong offers Gift to Vietnamese Monastic Researchers

34. Huong Sen Delegate with Nandawansa

and Dr. Kahawatte Siri Sumedha

35. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong with Vietnamese Researchers

36. Vietnamese Monastic Scholars at front side

of the Maha Mahinda International Dharmadutha Society

• With Young Novices

38. Memory Photo for Colombo Seminar

***

BẢO ANH LẠC BOOKSHELF

Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Giới Hương composed

 

• THE VIETNAMESE BOOKS

• Bồ-tát và Tánh Không Trong Kinh Tạng Pali và Đại Thừa (Boddhisattva and Sunyata in the Early and Developed Buddhist Traditions).
• Ban Mai Xứ Ấn (The Dawn in India) - Tuyển tập các Tiểu Luận Phật Giáo (Collection of Buddhist Essays), (3 tập).
• Vườn Nai – Chiếc Nôi (Phật Giáo Deer Park–The Cradle of Buddhism).
• Quy Y Tam Bảo và Năm Giới (Take Refuge in Three Gems and Keep the Five Precepts).
• Vòng Luân Hồi (The Cycle of Life).
• Hoa Tuyết Milwaukee (Snowflake in Milwaukee).
• Luân Hồi trong Lăng Kính Lăng Nghiêm (The Rebirth in Śūrangama Sūtra).
• Nghi Thức Hộ Niệm, Cầu Siêu (The Ritual for the Deceased).
• Quan Âm Quảng Trần (The Commentary of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva).
• Nữ Tu và Tù Nhân Hoa Kỳ (A Nun and American Inmates).
• Nếp Sống Tỉnh Thức của Đức Đạt Lai Lạt Ma Thứ XIV (The Awakened Mind of the 14^th Dalai Lama).
• A-Hàm: Mưa pháp chuyển hóa phiền não (Agama – A Dharma Rain transforms the Defilement), 2 tập.
• Góp Từng Hạt Nắng Perris (Collection of Sunlight in Perris).
• Pháp Ngữ của Kinh Kim Cang (The Key Words of Vajracchedikā-Prajñāpāramitā-Sūtra).
• Tập Thơ Nhạc Nắng Lăng Nghiêm (Songs and Poems of Śūraṅgama Sunlight).
• Nét Bút Bên Song Cửa (Reflections at the Temple Window).
• Máy Nghe MP3 Hương Sen (Hương Sen Digital Mp3 Radio Speaker): Các Bài Giảng, Sách, Bài viết và Thơ Nhạc của Thích Nữ Giới Hương (383/201 bài).
• DVD Giới Thiệu về Chùa Hương Sen, USA (Introduction on Huong Sen Temple).
• Ni Giới Việt Nam Hoằng Pháp tại Hoa Kỳ (Sharing the Dharma - Vietnamese Buddhist Nuns in the United States).
• Tuyển Tập 40 Năm Tu Học & Hoằng Pháp của Ni sư Giới Hương (Forty Years in the Dharma: A Life of Study and Service—Venerable Bhikkhuni Giới Hương), Thích Nữ Viên Quang, TN Viên Nhuận, TN Viên Tiến, and TN Viên Khuông.
• Tập Thơ Nhạc Lối Về Sen Nở (Songs and Poems of Lotus Blooming on the Way).
• Nghi Thức Công Phu Khuya – Thần Chú Thủ Lăng Nghiêm (Śūraṅgama Mantra).
• Nghi Thức Cầu An – Kinh Phổ Môn (The Universal Door Sūtra).
• Nghi Thức Cầu An – Kinh Dược Sư (The Medicine Buddha Sūtra).
• Nghi Thức Sám Hối Hồng Danh (The Sūtra of Confession at many Buddha Titles).
• Nghi Thức Công Phu Chiều – Mông Sơn Thí Thực (The Ritual Donating Food to Hungry Ghosts).
• Khóa Tịnh Độ – Kinh A Di Đà (The Amitabha Buddha Sūtra).
• Nghi Thức Cúng Linh và Cầu Siêu (The Rite for Deceased and Funeral Home).
• Nghi Lễ Hàng Ngày - 50 Kinh Tụng và các Lễ Vía trong Năm (The Daily Chanting Rituals and Annual Ceremonies).
• Hương Đạo Trong Đời 2022 (Tuyển tập 60 Bài Thi trong Cuộc Thi Viết Văn Ứng Dụng Phật Pháp 2022 - A Collection of Writings on the Practicing of Buddhism in Daily Life in the Writing Contest 2022).
• Hương Pháp 2022 (Tuyển Tập Các Bài Thi Trúng Giải Cuộc Thi Viết Văn Ứng Dụng Phật Pháp 2022 - A Collection of the Winning Writings on the Practicing of Buddhism in Daily Life in the Writing Contest 2022).
• Giới Hương - Thơm Ngược Gió Ngàn (Giới Hương – The Virtue Fragrance Against the Thousand Winds), Nguyên Hà.
• Pháp Ngữ Kinh Hoa Nghiêm (Buddha-avatamsaka-nāma-mahāvaipulya-sūtra) (2 tập).
• Tinh Hoa Kinh Hoa Nghiêm (The Core of Buddha-avatamsaka-nāma-mahāvaipulya-sūtra).
• Phật Giáo – Tầm Nhìn Lịch Sử Và Thực Hành (Buddhism: A Historical and Practical Vision). Hiệu đính: Thích Hạnh Chánh và Thích Nữ Giới Hương.
• Nhật ký Hành Thiền Vipassana và Kinh Tứ Niệm Xứ (Diary: Practicing Vipassana and the Four Foundations of Mindfulness Sutta)
• Nghi cúng Giao Thừa (New Year's Eve Ceremony)
• Nghi cúng Rằm Tháng Giêng (the Ceremony of the First Month’s Full Moon)
• Nghi thức Lễ Phật Đản (The Buddha Birthday’s Ceremony)
• Nghi thức Vu Lan (The Ullambana Festival or Parent Day)
• Lễ Vía Quan Âm (The Avolokiteshvara Day)
• Nghi cúng Thánh Tổ Kiều Đàm Di (The Death Anniversary of Mahapajapati Gotami)
• Nghi thức cúng Tổ và Giác linh Sư trưởng (The Ancestor Day)

1.2. THE ENGLISH BOOKS 

• Boddhisattva and Sunyata in the Early and Developed Buddhist Traditions.
• Rebirth Views in the Śūraṅgama Sūtra.
• Commentary of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva.
• The Key Words in Vajracchedikā Sūtra.
• Sārnātha-The Cradle of Buddhism in the Archeological View.
• Take Refuge in the Three Gems and Keep the Five Precepts.
• Cycle of Life.
• Forty Years in the Dharma: A Life of Study and Service—Venerable Bhikkhuni Giới Hương.
• Sharing the Dharma -Vietnamese Buddhist Nuns in the United States.
• A Vietnamese Buddhist Nun and American Inmates.
• Daily Monastic Chanting.
• Weekly Buddhist Discourse Chanting.
• Practice Meditation and Pure Land.
• The Ceremony for Peace.
• The Lunch Offering Ritual.
• The Ritual Offering Food to Hungry Ghosts.
• The Pureland Course of Amitabha Sutra.
• The Medicine Buddha Sutra.
• The New Year Ceremony.
• The Great Parinirvana Ceremony.
• The Buddha’s Birthday Ceremony.
• The Ullambana Festival (Parents’ Day).
• The Marriage Ceremony.
• The Blessing Ceremony for The Deceased.
• The Ceremony Praising Ancestral Masters.
• The Enlightened Buddha Ceremony.
• The Uposatha Ceremony (Reciting Precepts).
• Buddhism: A Historical and Practical Vision. Edited by Ven. Dr. Thich Hanh Chanh and Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong.
• Contribution of Buddhism For World Peace & Social Harmony. Edited by Ven. Dr. Buddha Priya Mahathero and Ven. Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong.
• Global Spread of Buddhism with Special Reference to Sri Lanka. Buddhist Studies Seminar in Kandy University. Edited by Prof. Ven. Medagama Nandawansa and Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong.
• Buddhism In Sri Lanka During The Period of 19th to 21st Centuries. Buddhist Studies Seminar in Colombo. Edited by Prof. Ven. Medagama Nandawansa and Dr. Bhikṣuṇī TN Gioi Huong.
• Diary: Practicing Vipassana and the Four Foundations of Mindfulness Sutta.

1.3.THE BILINGUAL BOOKS (VIETNAMESE-ENGLISH)

 

• Bản Tin Hương Sen: Xuân, Phật Đản, Vu Lan (Hương Sen Newsletter: Spring, Buddha Birthday and Vu Lan, annual/ Mỗi Năm).
• Danh Ngôn Nuôi Dưỡng Nhân Cách - Good Sentences Nurture a Good Manner.
• Văn Hóa Đặc Sắc của Nước Nhật Bản-Exploring the Unique Culture of Japan.
• Sống An Lạc dù Đời không Đẹp như Mơ - Live Peacefully though Life is not Beautiful as a Dream.
• Hãy Nói Lời Yêu Thương-Words of Love and Understanding.
• Văn Hóa Cổ Kim qua Hành Hương Chiêm Bái -The Ancient- Present Culture in Pilgrim.
• Nghệ Thuật Biết Sống - Art of Living.
• Dharamshala - Hành Hương Vùng Đất Thiêng, Ấn Độ, Dharamshala - Pilgrimage to the Sacred Land, India.

 

 

1.4.THE TRANSLATED BOOKS

• Xá Lợi Của Đức Phật (Relics of the Buddha), Tham Weng Yew.
• Sen Nở Nơi Chốn Tử Tù (Lotus in Prison), many authors.
• Chùa Việt Nam Hải Ngoại (Overseas Vietnamese Buddhist Temples).
• Việt Nam Danh Lam Cổ Tự (The Famous Ancient Buddhist Temples in Vietnam).
• Hương Sen, Thơ và Nhạc – (Lotus Fragrance, Poem and Music).
• Phật Giáo-Một Bậc Đạo Sư, Nhiều Truyền Thống (Buddhism: One Teacher – Many Traditions),Đức Đạt Lai Lạt Ma 14^th & Ni Sư Thubten Chodren.
• Cách Chuẩn Bị Chết và Giúp Người Sắp Chết-Quan Điểm Phật Giáo (Preparing for Death and Helping the Dying – A Buddhist Perspective).

2.BUDDHIST MUSIC ALBUMS

from POEMS of THÍCH NỮ GIỚI HƯƠNG

1.      Đào Xuân Lộng Ý Kinh (The Buddha’s Teachings Reflected in Cherry Flowers).

2. Niềm Tin Tam Bảo (Trust in the Three Gems).
3. Trăng Tròn Nghìn Năm Đón Chờ Ai (Who Is the Full Moon Waiting for for Over a Thousand Years?).
4. Ánh Trăng Phật Pháp (Moonlight of Dharma-Buddha).
5. Bình Minh Tỉnh Thức (Awakened Mind at the Dawn) (Piano Variations for Meditation).
6. Tiếng Hát Già Lam (Song from Temple).
7. Cảnh Đẹp Chùa Xưa (The Magnificent, Ancient Buddhist Temple).
8. Karaoke Hoa Ưu Đàm Đã Nở (An Udumbara Flower Is Blooming).
9. Hương Sen Ca (Hương Sen’s Songs)
10. Về Chùa Vui Tu (Happily Go to Temple for Spiritual Practices)
11. Gọi Nắng Xuân Về (Call the Spring Sunlight).
12. Đệ Tử Phật. Thơ: Thích Nữ Giới Hương, Nhạc: Uy Thi Ca & Giác An, volume 4, năm 2023.

Mời xem: http://www.huongsentemple.com/index.php/kinh-sach/tu-sach-bao-anh-lac

 

BUDDHISM IN SRI LANKA DURING THE PERIOD OF THE 19TH TO 21ST CENTURIES

Author: Bao Anh Lac Bookshelf 80 - Huong Sen Buddhist Temple

HONG DUC PUBLISHING

Tel.: 024.39260024 - Fax : 024.39260031

Email: This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.

Responsible for publishing Manager: Bui Viet Bac

 Responsible for the content Editor in Chief: Ly Ba Toan

 Editor: Phan Thi Ngoc Minh Presenter: Vu Dinh Trong Editing the copy: Vu Dinh Trong

  Printing quantity: 1,000 copies, Size: 14.5 x 20.5 cm Printed at: Tram Anh Printing,

159/57 Bach Dang, Ward 2, Tan Binh District, HCM City.

Registration number:3504-2023/CXBIPH/12-98/HĐ ISBN: 978-604-419-682-6

Publishing decision: 401/QD-NXBHD dated October 01, 2023 Finished printing and deposit in the fourth quarter of 2023

PLEASE READ THE WHOLE BOOK:  BUDDHISM IN SRI LANKA DURING THE PERIOD OF THE 19th TO 21st CENTURIES Buddhist Studies Conference, Colombo: 80-Bsm_in_Sri_Lanka-Inside-231014.pdf